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GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



ADAPTED TO 



n at Steals Rift ^xtitemw. 



By SAMUEL S. GKEENE, A.M. 

AUTHOR OF " INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GRAMMAR," " ANALYSIS OP 
SENTENCES," ETC., ETC. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

H. COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 

1860. 



c 






YLuu 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by 

SAMUEL S. GREENE, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode L-land. 

HEARS & DCSSNBERY, ELECTROTTPERS. SMITH & PETERS, PRIXTOIS. 



EXCHANGE' 
BROWN UHIV Li Bft*W 
OCT 7. 1938 



f*-f 



PREFACE. 



A ^ T m °? ^ tW6lve yearS since the first Publication of 
A ° al y^ of Sentences." During this period the work has 
passed through many editions, and has received the most flatter- 
ing testimonials from teachers and educators throughout the 
country. The tests to which it has been subjected in the hands 
of the most skilful instructors, have gone far to show that it has 
developed the true method of analyzing the English sentence. 
As this was the first, so it has been the basis of all the author's 

the'titt ATVr 6 EDgIfeh LangUage - An ^ridgment under 
the title of 'First Lessons m Grammar" was published in 1848. 
This book, though destitute of Oral Exercises, was adapted to a 

vein Li T 1 ! n °,' ^ Fepared fOT the more ri S id « de- 
veloped in the Analysis. 

To supply the want of Oral Exercises, the "Elements of 
English Grammar" was published in 1853. This work con- 
tamed an Introductory course wholly oral, besides the exercises 
interspersed among the definitions. ...In these oral lessons, the 
pupil s acquaintance with familiar objects was made the means 
of developing all the fundamental, distinctions in grammar. 
They were constructed upon the obvious principle that what is 
see* by a child reaches the understanding at once, and defines 
itself by appealing directly to his own judgment; while that 
which .s defined in words, must be committed to memory as the 
result of another's judgment. Exercises like these, if faithfully 
given, must lay the foundation for a satisfactory, because intelli- 
gible, eourse of study in Grammar. These exercises were neces- 
sarily very numerous, and were often too full for the wants of 
advanced pupils. From the suggestions of many teachers who 

(iii) 



placed the highest value upon the oral exercises, it has been 
thought best to divide the work into two books — the first contain- 
ing an introductory course of Oral Lessons, with enough of the 
principles of grammar to make it a suitable book for beginners, — 
the second containing a full course of study in English Grammar. 
The "Introduction to the Study of English Grammar" was 
issued in 1856, and has been found to meet an important want 
in our schools. It contains an easy and gradual opening of the 
subject, and suggests a ready way of teaching the parts of speech, 
as well as the construction and analysis of sentences, without the 
disgust and discouragement usually attendant upon the com- 
mencement of the study. Indeed, in the hands of a skilful 
teacher, who could readily supply such matter as must necessarily 
be excluded from a merely elementary book, it will be found 
sufficient for ordinary school purposes. 

The following work contains a full discussion of the principles 
of English Grammar. It is the result of an earnest endeavor to 
prepare a text book, in itself complete, and, at the same time, 
suitable for the school-room. 

To render it complete, it has been necessary to discuss many 
topics belonging only to an advanced course ; and to adapt it to 
the wants of the school-room, much of this matter is exhibited in 
smaller type, to distinguish between that which is of universal, 
and that which is only of occasional application — that which is 
to be learned, and that which is to be only carefully read over. 
One can scarcely analyze a single paragraph, even of easy compo- 
sition, without falling upon some idiomatic or rare construction 
not explained in the general rules. It is believed that most of 
these cases have been provided for in the following pages. 
Whenever it has been possible to refer such examples to some 
modification of a general analogy, it has been done; and its rela- 
tion to the regular construction has been indicated. 

As a guide to the learner, constant references to topics related 
to each other are kept up, particularly in the Syntax. An out- 
line of the subjects discussed on each page may be found at the 
bottom. In addition to these, a copious table of contents will 
enable one to find any topic at pleasure. To aid the learner in 
acquiring correct habits of analysis and parsing, numerous models, 
embracing all the varieties of construction and parts of speech, 



will be found in the different parts of the book, accompanied 
with Exercises for practice. In cases where the learner is in 
danger of adopting ungranimatical constructions, he is furnished 
with the necessary Cautions, which also serve as guides in cor- 
recting false Syntax. A system of Punctuation, growing directly 
from the analysis of sentences, is appended to the Syntax, and 
will be found easy of application to any one who has thoroughly 
studied the discussion of Elements in 153 — 186 inclusive. 

The fundamental principle upon which the subject has been 
developed is, that no theory of grammar is true or reliable, that 
cannot be abundantly verified by direct appeals to the usage of 
standard authors. The grammar of a language should be de- 
rived from the language itself. It is not the province of the 
grammarian to legislate in matters of language, but to classify 
md arrange its forms and principles by a careful study of its 
malogies as seen in the usage of the best writers. He does not 
make the rules and definitions which express these analogies ; 
hey had already existed, and were obeyed, — unconsciously, it is 
true, — long before he formed them into words and published 
them. Nor are they authoritative because he has uttered them, 
but simply because they are just and faithful interpretations of the 
already existing laws which underlie and pervade the language 
itself. He is a discoverer — not an inventor, not a dictator; but 
is true to his task just so far as he investigates and reinvestigates 
original sources found in the language itself, — not, of course, re- 
jecting the light which cotemporary or previous labor has shed 
upon his pathway. 

In the following classification of the principles of Grammar, 
greater prominence has been given to ideas than to mere /onus. 
The complete sentence is at first regarded as a wilt — an expres- 
sion of a single thought, and that too whatever may be the num- 
ber of propositions combined in it, or whatever may be the 
characteristic of the thought, as a statement, a command, an 
inquiry, or an exclamation. The thought determines the sentence. 
The classification of the sentence depends upon its specific pecu- 
liarities. Again, in separating the sentence into its parts, the 
element is taken as the unit, an expression of a Burgle idea of the 
full thought — and that too whether it be a single word, or a 
group of words, or whatever may be its form, structure, rank, or 
1* 



office. Here, again, the idea determines the element, while the 
classification depends upon some peculiarity of the element itself. 
Again, an element of the sentence may itself contain elements 
which may all conspire to express one of the chief ideas of the 
whole sentence. These, in like manner, are determined and 
classified. Finally, each single element is itself a icord, or may 
be separated into the words which form it. Thus, it will be seen 
that the sentence is not, as is usual, regarded at once as an assem- 
blage of words, but as an assemblage of elements variously ex- 
pressed ; and in the final analysis, these elements are reduced to 
words. It is this peculiarity that brings the learner into sympa- 
thy with the thought itself — the vital power which determines 
all the forms of the sentence. It gives him an interior view of 
its structure, and enables him to sit in judgment with the writer 
in his choice of forms. 

The Grammar of the English Language will be found to con- 
tain nearly all the principles embodied in the Analysis, and in 
all that pertains to the classification, modification, and construc- 
tion of words, it is believed, is sufficiently full. It is intended 
to follow the Introduction, and to precede the Analysis, which is 
adapted to advanced pupils. 

Although each book may be used independently of the others, 
the order in which they stand is : 
I. The Introduction. 
II. The Grammar of the English Language. 

III. The Analysis of Sentences. 

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to many friends for 
a great variety of suggestions which he has noted, and embodied 
in some form or other in these pages. Many changes have been 
made in the arrangement of the matter, and slight modifications 
will be found in the matter itself. As a whole, it is hoped, the 
work will be found both complete and convenient as a text book 
of English Grammar. 

S. S. Greene. 

Providence, May, 1860. 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION PAGE 

1. Definitions and Divisions ....... 13 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2. Definition . . . . . * . . .13 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

3. Number and Classes ........ 14 

4. Classes of Vocals ......... 14 

5. Classes of Subvocals and Aspirates . . . . '. .14 

6. Table of Elementary Sounds . . . . . . .16 

7. Exercise .......... 16 

LETTERS. 

8. The Alphabet . . . ' 17 

9. Classes of Letters ......... 17 

10. Exercise .19 

11. Combination of Letters . . . . . . . .19 

12. Union of Vowels 20 

13. Union of Consonants ........ 20 

14. Union of Vowels and Consonants . . . . . .21 

15. Exercise 21 

SYLLABLES. 

16. Formation of Syllables 21 

17. Exercise 22 

WORDS. 

18. Words Classified by their Syllables . . . . .22 

19. Exercise 23 

20. Primitive, Derivative, and Compound Words . . . ; 24 

21. Exercise . 24 

SPELLING. 

22. Spelling Defined 24 

PRIMITIVE WORDS. 

23. Rules for Primitives ........ 25 

DERIVATIVE WORDS — PREFIXES. 

24. Rules for applying Prefixes ....... 25 

DERIVATIVE WORDS — SUFFIXES. 

25. Rules for applying Suffixes ....... 26 

26. Exercise 27 

COMPOUND WORDS. 

27. Formation of Compound Words . . . . . . 2S 

28. Exercise 28 

29. Rules for the use of Capitals 28 

30. Exercise . . MO 

31. Rules for the Division of Words into Syllables . . . 30 

(vii) 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

section ETYMOLOGY. PAGE 

32. Definitions 31 

33. Classes of Words 31 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

34. Parts of Speech Defined 32 

NOUNS. 

35. Definition and Distinctions ....... 33 

36. Proper and Common Nouns ....... 34 

37. Exercise 35 

38. Properties of Nouns ........ 35 

39. Person of Nouns 36 

40. Exercise . . . . ' 36 

41. Number of Nouns ......... 37 

42. Regular Formation of the Plural ...... 37 

43. Irregular Formation of the Plural . . . . . .37 

44. Plural of Proper Names ........ 89 

45. Remarks on the Number oi Nouns ...... 40 

46. Exercise .......... 41 

47. Gender of Nouns ......... 41 

4S. Methods of distinguishing the Sexes . . . . .42 

49. Exercise 43 

50. Case of Nouns ......... 44 

51. Declension of Nouns . . . . . . . .45 

52. Exercise .......... 46 

53. Parsing .......... 46 

54. Exercise 47 

ADJECTIVES. 

55. Definitions .......... 49 

56. Classes of Adjectives . . . . . . . .49 

57. Articles . 49 

58. Exercise .......... 50 

59. Pronominal Adjectives ....*... 50 

60. Exercise .......... 51 

61. Numeral Adjectives ........ 51 

62. Exercise ' . . . .52 

63. Qualifying Adjectives ........ 52 

64. Comparison of Adjectives ....... 52 

65. Formation of the Comparative and Superlative . . . .53 

66. Exercise .......... 55 

67. Models for Parsing ........ 55 

PRONOUNS. 

68. Definitions and Distinctions . . . '. ... 57 

69. Classes of Pronouns ........ 59 

70. Personal Pronouns ........ 59 

71. Exercise 60 

72. Declension of the Personal Pronouns . . . . .61 

73. Exercise 62 

74. Pielative Pronouns ......... 64 

75. Simple Relatives ......... 64 

76. Compound Relatives ........ 66 

77. Exercise — Models for Parsing ....... 66 

78. Interrogative Pronouns ........ 69 

79. Exercise 69 



CONTENTS. IX 

SECTION PAGE 

VERBS. 

SO. Definitions and Distinctions ....... 71 

81. Exercise . 72 

82. Verbs classified by tbeir Use ...*... 73 

83. Exercise . . .74 

84. Verbs classified by their Form . . . . . .75 

85. Exercise 76 

86. Properties of Verbs . 76 

87. Voice 76 

88. Exercise 78 

89. Mode 79 

90. Exercise ■ 81 

PARTICIPLES. 

91. Definitions and Distinctions ....... 82 

92. Classes of Participles 82 

93. Present Active Participle ....... 84 

94. Present Passive Participle . . . . . .84 

95. Perfect Participles, Active and Passive . . . . .85 

96. The Participle Predicated or Assumed . . . ... 85 

97. Exercise .......... 85 

98. Tense 86 

99. Divisions of Time . . . . , . . . .87 

100. Classes of Tenses 88 

101. Present Tense 88 

102. Present Perfect Tense 88 

103. Past Tense 89 

104. Past Perfect Tense 89 

105. Future Tense 90 

106. Future Perfect Tense 90 

107. Tenses in all the Modes 91 

108. Exercise 92 

109. Forms of the Verb 93 

11.0. Forms for each Division of Time . . . . .94 

111. Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . , .94 

112. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries . . . . . .95 

113. Signification of the Auxiliaries . . . . . .96 

114. Exercise 98 

115. Uses of Auxiliaries — Formation of Tenses .... 101 

116. Number and Person of the Verb ...... 103 

117. Conjugation ......... 104 

118. Exercise . . . • 104 

119. Conjugation of Verb to be ....... 105 

120. Exercise 109 

121. Conjugation of the Regular Verb to love . 109 

122. Interrogative and Negative Forms . . . . . .115 

123. Exercise 115 

124. Synopsis — Progressive and Emphatic Forms — Verb Read . .116 

125. Exercise . . . . . . . . . .116 

126. Forms for each Division of Time combined . . . .116 

127. Irregular Verbs US 

128. Exorcise 122 

129. Defective Verbs 123 



X CONTENTS. 

SECTION PAGE 

130. Impersonal Verbs ' . . .123 

131. Exercise 123 

ADVERBS. 

132. Definition 126 

133. Exercise 126 

134. Classes of Adverbs 127 

135. Conjunctive Adverbs 127 

136. Exercise 128 

137. Comparison of Adverbs ....... 12S 

138. Exercise 129 

PREPOSITIONS. 

139. Definition 130 

140. List of Prepositions 130 

141. Exercise 131 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

142. Definition 132 

143. Classes of Connectives ........ 133 

144. Exercise 135 

INTERJECTIONS. 

145. Definition 137 

146. Exercise 137 

SYNTAX. 

147. Definition and Distinctions ....... 139 

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

148. Sentences classified by tbeir use as a whole .... 140 

149. Exercise 141 

150. Sentences Classified by tbeir Propositions .... 142 

151. Exercise 144 

152. Union of Entire Sentences ....... 144 

SYNTAX OP ELEMENTS. 

153. Definitions 145 

154. General Division of Elements ...... 145 

155. General Description of Elements . . • . . . . 145 

156. Nature of Elements 146 

157. Number of Elements . . . . . ... .147 

158. Exercise 147 

159. Rank of Elements 148 

160. Union of Elements 149 

161. Mutual relation of Elements 149 

162. Exercise 150 

163. Principal Elements . . . • 151 

164. Subordinate Elements ........ 152 

165. Exercise ... . . . 153 

166. Elements of the First Class.— Words . . . . '. 153 

167. Elements of the Second Class.— Phrases . . . .154 

168. Elements of the Third Class.— Clauses 154 

169. Exercise . . 155 

170. Direct and Indirect Quotation 155 

171. Exercise 156 

172. Simple, Complex, and Compound Elements .... 157 

173. Exercise 158 

174. Elements of the Simple Sentence . , . . . .158 



CONTENTS. 

SECTION 

175. Varieties of the Elements .... 

176. Exercise ....... 

177. Elements of Complex Sentences 

178. Varieties of Complex Sentences 

179. Elements of Compound Sentences . 

180. Varieties of Compound Sentences . 

181. Exercise ....... 

182. Elements of Contracted Sentences . 

183. Varieties of Partial Compounds 

184. Varieties of Sentences with Abridged Propositions 
1S5. Exercise ....... 

186. Equivalent Elements ..... 

187. Exercise ....... 

CONSTRUCTION. 

188. Definitions 

189. Models for Construction .... 

190. Exercise ....... 



ANALYSIS. 

Definitions ....... 

Directions for general Analysis of Sentences 
Models for general Analysis . 
Directions for the Analysis of Elements . 

195. Models for the Analysis of Sentences and their '. 

196. Exercise ....... 



191. 
192. 
i93. 
194. 



197. 

198. 
199. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
221. 
222. 



SYNTAX OF WORDS. 

Rules for Construction ..... 

RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS. 

The Subject 

Exercise ....... 

A Noun or Pronoun as Attribute 

Exercise ....... 

Agreement of the Pronoun .... 

Exercise ....... 

The Verb as Predicate ..... 

Exercise . . . . 

The Adjective as Modifier and as Predicate 
Exercise ....... 

The Noun or Pronoun in Apposition 

Exercise ....... 

Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive 

Exercise ....... 

The Object 

Exercise ....... 

Adverbs as Modifiers ..... 

Exercise ....... 

Case Independent and Interjection . 

Exercise ....... 

Coordinate Conjunctions .... 

Exercise . 

Coordinate Constructions .... 

Exercise ....... 

Propositions . . . • . 



Xil CONTENTS. 

SECTION p AGE 

223. Exercise • . , , 223 

224. The Object of the Preposition 224 

225. Exercise •••....... 225 

226. Subordinate Connectives . . . ... . . 225 

227. Exercise . 226 

228. The Infinitive * .227 

229. Exercise .......... 229 

230. Participles .......... 230 

231. Exercise ••••♦..... 232 

232. General Exercises for Analysis and Parsing .... 233 

233. Idiomatic and Peculiar Constructions ..... 237 

234. Figures of Etymology ........ 238 

235. Exercise 239 

236. Figures of Syntax . . . . . ... . 239 

237. Exercise 241 

238. Figures of Rhetoric 242 

239. Exercise 243 

PUNCTUATION. 

240. Definitions and Distinctions ....... 244 

POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 

241. General uses of the Comma ....... 245 

242. Coordinate Elements 245 

243. Exercise 247 

244. Principal and Subordinate Elements ..... 248 

245. Exercise 249 

246. The Principal Elements 250 

247. Exercise 250 

248. Independent and Parenthetic Expressions .... 251 

249. The Semicolon and Colon 251 

250. Exercise . 252 

251. The Dash and Parenthesis 252 

252. Exercise 253 

POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OP A SENTENCE. 

253. The Period 253 

254. Exercise 253 

255. Interrogation and Exclamation Points ..... 254 

256. Exercise 254 

257. Other points used in writing ....... 255 

258. Exercise 256 

PROSODY. 

259. Definitions 257 

260. Verse 257 

261. Feet . 257 

262. Exercise 258 

263. Classification of Verse 258 

264. Scanning . .259 

265. Iambic Verse 259 

266. Trochaic Verse 260 

. 267. Anapaestic Verse ......... 261 

268. Dactylic Verse 261 

269. Poetic Pauses 262 

270. Exercise 262 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Definitions and Divisions. 



1. English Grammar treats of the principles and usages of 
the English language ; it teaches us to speak and write it cor- 
rectly. 

2. It relates; — 

(a.) To the elementary sounds and letters of the language ; 
(b.) To the classification and modifications of its words ; 
(c.) To the structure of its sentences, — and 
(d.) To the laws of its versification. Hence, 

3. Grammar is divided into four parts — Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

4. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters which 
represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables and 
words. 

5. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and various 
modifications of words. 

6. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

7. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
2. Definition. 
Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters which 
represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables and 
words. 

English Grammar. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
3. dumber and Classes. 

1. An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the language ; 
as, the sound of a, e ; b or k. 

2. The English language contains about forty elementary 
sounds. 

3. These sounds are divided into three classes — vocals, subvo. 
cals, and aspirates. 

4. Xte vocals consist of pure tone only. They are the sounds 
of a, e, i } o, u, ouj as, in a-le, f-a-r, b-a-11, h-a-t, ni-e, in-e-t, f-i-ne, 
p-z-n ; g-o-ld ; m-o-ve, n-o-t ; m-u-te, p-w-11, c-w-p ; f-ow-nd. 

Remark. — The letters are but imperfect guides to these sounds. It is better 
therefore to disregard them wholly in the exercises on elementary sounds, and 
direct the attention exclusively to the sounds themselves. 

5. The subvocals consist of tone united with breath. They 
are the sounds of b, d, g,j, I, m, n, no, r, th, v, w, z, z (zh), y; as, 
in 5-at, d-og, g-o,j-oj, l-ot, m-an, n-o, so-ng, ba-r, th-is, v-at, ic-in, 
z-one, a-z-ure, y-es. 

6. (The aspirates consist of pure breath only. They are the 
sounds of/, h, k, p, s, t, th, sh, ch, ivh ; as, in/-aith, A-ome, scr-k, 
p-ine ; s-un, t-ake, ^A-ink, s/i-one, ch-ur-l, tuh-en. \ 

7. When closely examined, some of the sounds here represented as 
elementary, as, for example, i in isle (a in far and e in me), ou in found 
(a in all and oo in fool),/ in joy (dzh), ch in church (tsh), may be re- 
solved into simpler sounds, yet, for practical purposes, they may be 
regarded as elementary. 

4. Classes of Vocals. 

1. Vocals are divided into long and short. 

2. The long sound is one that can be protracted at pleasure ; as in 
may ay, hee ee. 

3. The short sound is one that is uttered with an explosive effort ; as 
in pm, pen, hat, sit. 

4. The long and short vocals are formed with the same position of the 
organs. Thus, a in hat is properly the short sound of a in far, not a in 
hate; while e in met is the short sound of a in hate. The i in pin is the 
short sound of ee in seen. The o in not is the short sound of o in nor, 
not o in note. The u in but is the short sound of u in fur, not u in mute. 



Elementary Sounds. Vocals, long and short. 



ORTHOGRAPIIY — LETTERS. 15 

5. Classes of Subvocais and Aspirates. 

1. The subvocais and aspirates are divided in a similar man- 
ner, into continuous and explosive. 

2. The continuous are capable of prolongation. 

They are the sounds of (subvocais) I, m, n, ng, r, ih, v, w,y, z, zh; as, in ha-ll, 
ca-m-e, rai-n, so-ng, ca-r, ba-^-e, la-u-e, w-o, y-es, ma-z-e, a-z-ure ; (aspirates), 
/, h, e, th, sh, wh, in lea-/, 7i-eat, thi-s, hea-^, le&sh, ich-j. 

3. The explosive are incapable of prolongation. 

They are the sounds of (subvocais) b, d, g,j; as, in ca-6, be-c7, 6.0-g, j-ob ; 
(aspirates), p, t, k, ch in ti-j>, pi-£, k-in, lur-c^. 

4. The subvocais, represented by w and y, are nearly allied to the 
vocals in oo-ze and m-ee-t. They may be called semi-vocals. 

5. The aspirates represented by ivh, and h, are properly breathings. 
The sound of h is formed with an open position of the organs ; that of 
wh with the lips contracted nearly as in the sound of w. 

6. Of the remaining subvocais, eight have this remarkable property, 
that they are formed with the same position of the organs as an equal 
number of aspirates, giving rise to eight pairs, b-p, d-t, g-k, j-ch, th-th, 
v-f, z-s, zh-sh, called correlatives. 

7. The first four pairs are explosive, the others are continuous. 

8. The subvocais, represented by I, m, n, ng and r, have no corres- 
ponding aspirates. 

9. The eight pairs, or correlatives, are called mutes ; the others, liquids. 

10. The following points of difference between a mute and a liquid 
may be noted : — 

(a) All the liquids are subvocais, — while half of the mutes are aspirates ; 

(b) The liquids are all continuous, — while half of the mutes are explosive : 

(c) Every continuous subvocal mute has a rough, buzzing sound ; the liquids 
have a smooth, flowing sound; 

((/) A mute may unite with a mute, but it must be a subvocal with a sub- 
vocal, or an aspirate with an aspirate. (See 13, 2.) A liquid may unite 
'with a liquid, as in arm, bam ; or with a mute either subvocal or aspirate, as 
in carp, card, hurt, hard. 

Remark. — It must not be understood, however, that any liquid will com- 
bine with any other liquid, or that any liquid will combine with any mute. 
Thus, the sounds of mn will not coalesce ; the sound of I seldom unites with 
that of m or n. The sound of m does not readily unite with that of k ; nor 
does the sound of n with that qf p. 

11. The mutes and liquids have certain affinities for each other, 
which arise mainly from a similarity in the position of the organs v.'.fh 

Subvocais and Aspirates, continuous and explosive! Semi-vocals. Breath- 
ings. Correlatives. Mates, Liquids. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which they are produced. Thus, the sound of m most readily unite.? 
with the sound of p, as in hemp, lump ; the sound of n unites most 
readily with t, d, or aspirate th, as in sent, end, te?ith ; also, ng with th, 
as in strength, length ; the sounds of I and r readily unite with nearly 
all the mutes, as in elf, melt, weld, belch, orb, hearth, ark, large. 

6. Table of Elementary Sounds. 

Vocals. Subvocals. Aspirates. Correlatives. 

1. a-le 1. 6-at 1. /-aith 1. 5-ow = p-o\& 

2. f-a-r 2. d-og 2. A-ome 2. d-og = t-on 

3. b-a-11 3. g-o 3. ar-& 3. g-et = £-ind 

4. h-a-t 4. J-oy 4. p-'me 4. ?A-is = fA-umb 

5. m-e 5. Z-ot 5. s-un 5. J-ob = cft-in 

6. m-e-t 6. wr-an 6. £-ake 6. v-an = /-an 

7. f-i-ne 7. h-o 7. fA-ink 7. «-one = s-on 

8. p-t"-n 8. so-»<jr 8. sh-ona 8. a-z-ure = eA-ut 

9. g-o-ld 9. ba-r 9. c/z-url 

10. ra-o-ve 10. th-is 10. loh-en 

11. n-o-t 11. r-at 

12. m-w-te 12. ic-ise 

13. p-M-11 13. z-one 

14. c-H-p 14. a-z-ure 

15. f-oM-nd 15. y-es 

7. Exercise. 

1. The teacher, uttering the sound of a in name, says, — "How many 
heard my voice?" Let the class give the same. The teacher, again, 
gives the sound of fin. fine (not the name eff, but the sound alone). " Do 
you hear a voice sound or a ivhispering sound?" The class utter the sound. 
Adding a slight vocality to the sound of /, with the organs in the same 
position, he gives the sound of v. "How many hear any voice sound 
now?" Returning to the sound of/, — "Do you now hear any voice 
sound? or only a whispering or breath sound ?" Giving the sound of o 
in note, — "What sound do you hear now ?" In the same manner treat 
the other elementary sounds. 

2. Tell by the sound which letters in the following promiscuous examples 
represent vocals, which subvocals, and which aspirates : — 

And, great, made, fame, sad, mete, gave, life, voice, six, zebra, full, 
bridge, sup, thin, thought, thine, when, whiffle, sent, gone, white, lone, 
fidget, cup, farm, wine, yes, so, knit, type, book, crow, met, line, pin, 
hat, harp, jug, king, long, nut, move, lot, queer, rind, street, sing, mute, 
suit, vine, sire, exist, sift, form, risk, mart, park, plum. 

Mutes and Liquids. Table of Elementary Sounds. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS. 17 

3. In the preceding examples tell which of the vocals are loxg and which 
short ; tell which of the subvocals and aspirates are continuous and which 
explosive. Select three words having two aspirate sounds united ; two 
having two subvocal mutes ; five having a liquid and a subvocal mute ; 
five having a liquid and an aspirate ; and two having two liquids. 



LETTERS. 
8. The Alphabet. 

1. A letter is a character used to represent an elementary 
sound. 

2. The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters : A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; 
D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; H, h; I, i; J, j; K, k; L, 1; M, m; N, n ; 
0, o ; P, p ; Q, q ; R, r ; S, s \ T, t ; U, u ; V, v ; W, w ; X, x ; Y, y ; 
Z, z. 

3. Letters cannot be too carefully distinguished from elementary sounds. 
The letter is an arbitrary mark addressed to the eye ; an elementary 
sound is always addressed to the ear. 

9. Classes of Letters. 

1. Letters are divided, — 

(a.) In respect to their forms, into capitals and small letters. 

(b.) In respect to the sounds they represent, into vowels and conso- 
nants. 

(c.) In respect to their application to these sounds, into permanent, 
variable, and silent. 

2. Capitals are used for the sake of distinction ; small letters constitute 
the principal part of every composition. (Sec 29). 

3. The various styles of letters are the Roman, the Italic, ©lij HEnjjIfsIj, 
and QSozt'/it. 

4. Letters of the same style differ in size, giving rise to the following 
distinctions : — 

Great Primer, Bourgeois, 

English, Brcvier ' 



Pica, 

Small Pica, Agate, 



Minion, 
Nonpareil, 



Pearl. 



Long Primer, Ui ; mo ; d . 

LcUcrs. Capitals. Small Letters. Styles, and Sizes. 
2* B 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Those letters which represent vocals are called vowels. 
They are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

6. W and Y are consonants when they precede a vowel heard in the 
same syllable ; as, wine, twine, yes, yet. In all other situations they 
are vowels ; as, rye, grew. 

Note. — /, when it represents the sound of y, as in al-{en, min-um, is to be 
considered as a consonant. 

7. Those letters which represent subvocals and aspirates, are 
called consonants. 

8. The consonants, are b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v, z (subvocal), and /, h, k, 
c, q, p, t, s (aspirates) ; z is a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, an 
aspirate when it is equivalent to ks. 

9. When a letter is invariably applied to the same sound, it is said to 
be permanent ; as, m, n, p, t. 

10. When a letter represents several different sounds, it is said to be 
variable ; as, a in name, far, fat, hall, care, what, liar. 

11. When a letter stands for no sound, it is said to be silent; as, g in gnat. 

12. When several variable letters, or combinations of letters, repre- 
sent the same sound, they are called equivalents ; as, n-ame, g-ay, th-ey. 
Thus, a may be equivalent to ai, ay, ei, ey, ao, au, as in vain, pay, rein, 
pxey, gaol, gauge. 

13. The following table embraces most of the equivalents : — 

a = ai, ay, ei, ey, ao, au, ue, in vain, pay, rein, prey, gaol, gauge, bouquet. 

a = e, ei, ai, ea, in there, their, fair, bear. 

a = aw, oa, o, au, ou, awe, in law, broad, for, applaud, bought, awe. 

e = ee, ey, ea, ie, ei, i, in tree, key, flea, brief, conceive, fatigue. 

e = a, u, ai, ay, ea, ei, eo, in many, bury, again, says, head, heifer, feoff. 

i = y, ey, ie, uy, ai, ei, ui, ye, in by, eye, die, buy, aisle, height, guide, lye. 

i.F= o, u, y, ie, ee, ui, in women, busy, hymn, sieve, been, guilt. 

= oo, owe, oa, oe, ow, ou, ew, eau, in door, owe, goat, roe, flow, dough, sew, 
beau. 

o — a, in what. 

u = in eio, ue, iew, ieu, eau, ew, ui, ou, in flew, hue, view, adieu, beauty, 
deuce, sluice, you. 

u = o, oo, ou, in wolf, wool, would. 

u = o, e, if y, oe, ou, in ton, her, sir, myrrh, does, touch, 
ou = ow, in now. 

oi = oy, in joy. 

z = c, s, x, in sacrifice, was, Xerxes, 
f = ph, v, in Philip, of. 

j = 9, in joy. 

x = ks, gs, z, in wax, example, Xerxes. 

sh = s, ch, ce, ei, si, ti, in sure, chaise, ocean, gracious, session, partial, 
ch s= te in righteous. 

Vowels. Consonants. Permanent, Variable. Silent. Equivalents. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS. 19 

10. Exercise. 

1. Tell which letters are vowels, and which are consonants, in the following 
words : — 

Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, live, old, sad, young, wine, 
said, yet, win, new, gay, day. 

2. Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, which subvocals, and 
which aspirates : — 

a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j. 

3. Analyze the following words by giving, in order, the elementary sounds 
[not the names of the letters) ; tell how many sounds and how many letters 
each has ; also what letters are silent: — 

Mete, laugh, bought," fought, believe, phthisic, balm, rough, piece, 
beauty, thought, blight. 

Model. M — e — t = mete: — three sounds and four letters. The 
final e is silent. 

4. In the following examples, tell what words contain equivalents of a in 
name ; of a in ball ; of a in fare ; of e in mete ; of e in end ; of i in iron ; 
of i in ink ; of o in go ; of o in dot ; of u in music ; of u in pull; of u in 
gun ; of ou in plough, and of oi in toil : — 

Grain, air, awl, see, bread, symbol, floor, what, new, could, son, now, 
deign, lair, nor, defraud, brought, awed, key, deaf, been, Wed, blue, 
should, rough, boy, feign, bear, sea, women, coat, lieutenant, tough, 
hay, there, lief, buy, beaux, pay, perceive, guile, bouquet, league, rain, 
sought, nay, brief, bee, deceive, instead. 

5. Tell what words in the following list contain equivalents to any sounds 
°f c > fi 9i z > 2 » sn > an( l °h •' — 

Kent, phlegm, tacks, chagrin, righteous, phonography, physician, sac- 
rifice, champagne, single, exist, ferocious, partition, nation, phonetics, 
physics, sit, stand, chamois, quarrel, join, Xenophon, passion, phospho- 
rus, just, oceanic, jump, beaux. 



11. Combination of Letters. 

1. When two or more letters unite, to represent a union of 
elementary sounds, they form a combination of letters ; as, ou, oi, 
bl, on, no, not, breath, breadth, thrusts, 

2. Sometimes a combination of elementary sounds is represented by a 

Combination of Letters. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

single letter ; as, i = a e (a in far, and e in me) ; u in union = yu ; o in 
one = v:u. 

3. Sometimes a combination of letters represents a single elementary 
sound ; as, th in this ; ti, ci, si, ce, in martial, mission, official, ocean ; oo, ee, 
aa, gg, zz, bb, ff, II, tt, in door, feet, Isaac, egg, buzz, ebb, off, call, butt. 



12. Union of Vowels. 

1. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable; as, 
ou in sound, oi in voice. 

2. A. proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded; 
as, ou in thou. 

3. An improper diphthong is one in which one of the vowels is 
silent; as, the a in heat. 

4. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable ; as, 
eau in beauty. 

5. A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels are 
sounded ; as, aoy in buoy. 

6. An improper triphthong is one in which one or two of the 
vowels are silent; as, ea in beauty, ie in adieu. 



13. Union of Consonants. 

1. Two consonants are said to unite when their sounds coalesce ; 
as, bl-e-nd, thr-ee. 

2. If they represent two mutes, these must be similar, that is, both sub- 
vocals or both aspirates; as, apt, adze, hate. (See 5, 10, (d).) 

3. If two consonants representing dissimilar mutes come together, the 
sound of one, usually the latter, is changed to its correlative, though the 
letter remain the same j (5, 6) ; as, bag, bag*, pad, pads = bagz, pad^r, placed 
= plac'rf = plaef. In oath, bath, and others, th aspirate becomes th subvocal 
in the plural, and s follows the rule. Not so with th in truths, youths. 

Note. — By analyzing the plurals bags and pads, and the possessives dog's 
and stag's, it will be seen that, though we add the letter s, which should rcpre-" 
sent an aspirate, we do not add an aspirate sound, but the subvocal sound 
represented by z, and that because it is preceded by the subvocals repre- 
sented by g and d. Mark the difference in the following plurals, where s is 
preceded by an aspirate : caps, hats, lochs. 

Though d should represent a subvocal, yet in placed it takes the sound of 

Diphthongs, proper and improper. Triphthongs, proper and improper. 
Consonants coalesce. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 21 

its correlative t, because it is made to # unite with a preceding aspirate. In the 
present state of the language, this rule is quite uniform, as may be seen in 
the past tenses and participles of several verbs ; as, looked = look'd = lookt. 
This will account for the changes in many of the verbs now called irregular ; 
as, weep, weeped = toep'd — wept. So sleep, creep. 

3. When they represent two liquids, they are always similar (5, 8, 9), and 
their sounds, with some exceptions, readily coalesce ; as arm, elm, burn, mar?. 
JV becomes silent after m, as in hym», and after I in kiln. 

4. When they represent, the one a mute, and the other a liquid, even 
though dissimilar, their sounds readily unite; as, spend, spent, ha^, hart. 
(See 5, 10, (d).) 

5. When two identical letters (double letters) come together, whether 
standing for mutes or liquids, they seldom represent more than a single 
sound (11, 3) ; thus, egg, hutt, ebb, whijf = eg, hut, eb, win/. 



14. Union of Vowels and Consonants. 
1. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel sound; as, 
an, no, did, call. 

15. Exercise. 

1. Point out the voiuel combinations in the folloiving zvords ; tell whether the 
diphthongs are proper or improper : — 

Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people, view, adieu, 
beauty, though, chief, fail, Csesar, how, sew, gaol, mail, deal. 

2. Point out the consonant co?nbinatio?is in the folloiving, and tell what let- 
ters are identical, and what are changed into their correlatives : — 

Birds, blend, apt, capped, clapped, buzz, mats, heads, beads, brought, 
off, skiff, pass, insist, first, faced, round, word, gird, gold, sold, bulb, 
verb, worm, last, craft, compact, acts. 

SYLLABLES. 

16. Formation of Syllables. 

1. A syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered with 
one impulse of the voice ; as, mat, mat-ter, ma-tc-ri-al. 

2. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. 

* Note. — By vnwel hero is meant a vowel sound, whether represented by a 
single letter, a diphthong or a triphthong. 

3. A syllabic may consist, — 
(a.) Of a vowel; as, n-cre, et-ther. 

Union of liquids, — of identical letters, — of vowels and consonants. Syl- 
lables, essential part of. 



'22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(b.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants prefixed; as, ia-sis, bri-cr, 
three, phthisis. 

(c.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants affixed; as, in, elf, inter-evfs, 
earths. 

(d.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both prefixed and affixed; as, 
h-oo-h, tr-u-th, thr-u-sts. 

4. A vowel is said to be modified by the consonant which unites with 
it. Thus, in model, o, and not e, is modified by d. 

5. The process of combining elementary parts is called synthesis, and 
that of separating a combination into its elements is called analysis. 

Note. — In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, (1.) the essential part, 
that is, the vowel or diphthong; (2.) the consonant or combination (13.) of 
consonants which is prefixed to it; (3.) the consonant or combination of 
consonants which is affixed to it. 

17. Exercise. 

MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. 

An ... is a syllable consisting of two elements : — 

A .... is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its sound.) 

n .... is a consonant, and represents a subvocal ; it is affixed to a, 

which it modifies. (Give its sound.) 
Break . is a syllable consisting of three parts: — 
ea .... is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why ?), improper 

(why?) ; e is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give its sound.) 
Br ... is a union (13.) of two consonants, both representing subvocals, 

b and r, which are prefixed to ea. (Give their sounds separately, 

then together.) 
A; .... is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is affixed to ca. 

(Give its sound.) 

1. Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element: — 

Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, clay, wax, bat, view, sound, 
aid, meet, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, bursts, threats. 

2. Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, ieu, y ; two 
or moke consonants to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi, ee, ea, ay, ey; by affixing one, 
two, or three consonants to any five of the above vowels or diphthongs. 

3. Form ten syllables in which one, two, or more consonants shall be pre- 
fixed and affixed to any vowel or union of vowels. 

WORDS. 
13. "Words Classified by their Syllables. 
1. A word is one or more syllables used as the sign of an idea. 

Formation of syllables. Vowel modified. Synthesis. Analysis. Words. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 23 

Remark. — "Written words are used to represent both sounds and ideas. As 
the representatives of sounds, they are classified according to the number of 
syllables they contain. 

2. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, boy, pen, tree. 

3. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable ; as,> na-ture, faith-ful. 

4. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, nat-u-ral, 
faith-ful-ne%s. 

5. A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable ; as, un- 
nat-u-ral, un-failh-ful-ness. 

6. Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particular syllable, to 
distinguish it from others. 

7. Every word of more than one syllable has one of its syllables 
accented. 

8. The accented syllable may be either the first, last, or a middle syl- 
lable ; as, du'ty, belong / , pre-paying. 

9. Some words have a primary and secondary accent ; as, i?i // defat / - 
igable, in // comprehensible. 

Note. — In analyzing a word according to its syllables, it should be sepa- 
rated by (31, 1), the accented syllable pointed out, and then each syllable 
analyzed as in (17). 

19. Exercise. 

MODELS FOR ANALYZING WORDS. 

Faithfulness . is a trisyllable ; repeat (18, 4). 

Faith is the accented syllable ; repeat (18, 6). 

ful and ness . are unaccented syllables. 

Change the accent first to ful, then to ness ; restore it to its true place. 

Analyze each syllable, (17). 

1. Analyze and describe the following zcords : — 

Beat, said, tree ; friendship, social, himself, stately ; complaining, 
interpret, indolence ; incessantly, condemnation, interdicting, domesti- 
cate ; consanguinity, confederation, impenetrable ; mispronunciation, 
incomprehensible, indefatigable ; impenetrability ; incomprehensibility. 

2. Correct the accent in the following words: — 

Local', indo / lcnce, memorable, ignoble, frequent/ly, lament/able, 
actual, indisputable, immutable, retrospect, completion, lute'r.il. 

3. Change the accent in the following words to the second syllable, and give 
their meaning : — 

August, conjure, des'ert, en'trance', min'uto, prcs'ent, proj'ect, 
in'vnlid. 

Monosyllables. Dissyllables. Trisyllables. Polysyllables. Accent. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Write the following tvords upon your slate, and divide them into syllables, 
marking the accented syllable: — 

Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, laborious, 
relate, detestation, infesting, exemplary. 

Model. Con / s^ience. 

20. Primitive, Derivative, and Compound Wo? ds. 
1. A word in no way derived from a radical is a primitive 
word; as, form, harm. 

2. A radical is a word or part of a word wholly underived from any 
other word. 

3. A word formed by joining to a radical some letter or sylla- 
ble, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word; as, re-form, 
harni-fess. 

4. A word formed by uniting two or more entire words is a 
compound word; as, inkstand, schoolhouse. 

5. The parts of those compounds which have been long in use are 
generally united closely; as, nevertheless, sunrise; in others, the hyphen 
(-) is used to separate the parts ; as, labor-saving. 

21. Exercise. 

1 Tell which of the folloiving words are primitive, which derivative, 
and which compound : — 

Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, bookstore, 
play-mate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, reform, dismember, 
dreary. 

2. Form derivative words from the following primitives, and draw a line 
tinder the added syllable or letter : — 

Hope, fear, harm, love, care, know, peer, ape, weed, cloud, form, 
grade, place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh. 

Model. HopeZm. 

8. Form compound words by joining some appropriate word to each of the 
folloiving : — 

Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, bill, fire, eye, weed, toll, wood, foot, 
work, play, land, busy, tree, breeze. 

Model. Air-pump. 

SPELLING. 
22. Spelling Defined. 
Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper letters ; 

Primitive, derivative, and compound words. Radicals. Spelling. 



SPELLING — PRIMITIVES, DERIVATIVES. ZO 

it may be treated of under tlie three classes of words, — primitive, 
derivative, and compound. 

PRIMITIVE WORDS. 

83. Pwiiles for Primitives. 

Note. — The spelling of primitive words should he learned mainly from 
the dictionary or spelling hook. The following are the most obvious rules : — 

1. Rule I. Monosyllables ending in/, I, or s, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant; as, stuff, bell, miss. If, 
of, as, gas, was, has, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, are exceptions. - 

2. Rule II. Words ending in any other consonant than /J 
I, or s, do not double the final letter ; as, put, rap, on, trim, brag, 
star. Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, bunn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, 
fuzz, are exceptions. 

DERIVATIVE WORDS— PREFIXES. 

24. Rules for applying Prefixes. 

Note. — Tn the formation of derivative words, the final letters of the primi- 
tive, as well as those of the prefix, often undergo a change. Hence the fol- 
lowing rules should be studied with care. 

1. That part of a derivative word which is placed before the 
radical is called a prefix ; as, re-turn, pre-pay. 

Note. — In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take place, 
to render the sound more agreeable. These changes are made according to 
the following rules : — 

2. Rule I. Dropping the final Letter. — The final letter 
of a prefix is sometimes omitted ; as, co-existent, for co?i-existent ; 
ant-SLTGtic, for ant i-nrctic. 

3. Rule II. Changing the final Letter. — The final 
ietter of a prefix is often changed to one which will harmonize, 
in sound, with the initial letter of the radical; as, im-pious, for 
?'«-pious. 

. (a.) The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the first 
letter of the radical ; as, iMiinitablc. 

(b.) The principal prefixes which undergo this change are ad (ac, af, ag, 
al, au, ap, ar, as, at); eon (cog, com, col, cor); en (cm): e (ex, cc, cf); ilia 
(dif, di) ; ob (of, oc, op) ; vitb (sue, suf, sug, sup, sur) ; syn (sym, syl). 

Primitives in f, 1, or s. Prefixes. Rules for final I 



ZU ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DERIVATIVE WORDS— SUFFIXES. 

25. Rules for applying Suffixes. 

1. That part of a derivative word which is placed after the 
radical is called a suffix ; as, faith-/**/, end-less. 

Note. — In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of tlie radical are 
often changed. Such changes are made according to the following rules : — 

2. Rule I. Doubling the final Letter. — On receiving 
a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of a mono- 
syllable, or of any word accented on the last syllable, is doubled, 
if the radical ends with a single consonant, preceded by a single 
vowel j otherwise it remains single ; as, dig-ing, digging, defer-ing, 
deferring • so appeal, becoming in the derivative appeV , gives 
appellant. Not so repair-ing, defend-ing, diffcr-ing. Acquit, 
following the rule, gives acquitted, since qu = kw. 

(a.) In many words ending in I ; as travel, libel, cancel, cavil, chisel, coun- 
sel, duel, equal, gravel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tunnel, argil, <fcc, 
some double the I on adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, though the 
accent is not on the last syllable; others follow the rule. To these words add 
worship, bias, kidnap ; worship-ping, bias-sing, hidnap-ping. 

(b.) As x final is equivalent to ks, it is never doubled ; as, mix, mixed, 
mixing. 

(c.) When in the derivative word, the accent is changed to a preceding syl- 
lable of the root, the final letter is not always doubled ; as, from prefer' , we 
have preference, and preferable ; from refer', reference, and referable, or 
refer' rible ; infer', inference, in'ferable, infer' rible ; transfer', transferable, or 
transfer' rible. 

The derivatives of excel', and some other words, though the accent is 
changed, still double the final letter; as, excel', ex'cellent, excellence. 

3. Rule II. Dropping the final Letter. — On receiving 
a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the radical is 
dropped, in words ending in e silent; as, lox e-ing, loving ; \o\ T e-ed, 
loved ; also in some words ending in y and i; as, felicity-ate, /eft'-. 
tate ; dei-ism, deism. 

(a.) Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained, when preceded by 
c or g, to preserve the soft sound of these letters; as, -peace-able, peaceable ; 
change-a&^e, changeable. So also we have singeing and swingeing, to distin- 
guish them from singing, swinging. 

(b.) The final letters le, when followed by hj, are dropped; as, noble-Zy, 
nobly. So also t or te before ce or c\j ; as, vagrant-cy, vagrancy; prelate-cy, 
prelacy. 

Suffix. Rules for final letter of radical. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — DERIVATIVES. 27 

(c.) Words ending in II usually drop one I on taking an additional syllable 
beginning with a consonant; as, skill-/«Z, skilful. 

(d.) Sometimes when the final e is preceded by a vowel, it is dropped before 
asuffix beginning with a consonant; as true, truly; aice, awful.; sometimes 
it is retained ; as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless. The final e preceded by a con- 
sonant is dropped before a suffix beginning with a consonant in the words, 
whole, wholly ; judge, judgment ; abridge, abridgment ; acknowledge, acknow- 
ledgment. 

4. Rule III. Changing the final Letter. — The final 
y of a radical is generally changed to i, if preceded by a conso- 
nant; otherwise it usually remains unchanged; as happy-esf, 
happiest; duty-es ; duties; day-s ; days. 

(a.) Before the terminations ly and ness, some words, as shy, dry, do not 
change the final y. To prevent doubling i, the y is not changed when the 
suffix begins with */ as, marry -ing, marrying. For the same reason, the e 
being dropped by Rule II., in die, lie, tie, vie, the i is changed into y ; as, 
dying, lying, tying, vying. 

(b.) The/, in words ending in/or/e, is often changed to v, when the suffix 
begins with a vowel ; as, life, by (25, 3) lif, — plural liv-es, lives. 

(c.) From lay, pay, say, and stay, though y is preceded by a vowel, we have 
laid, paid, said, and staid. So from day, we have daily; and from gay, 
gaily, and gaiety ; though better written gayly and gayety. 



26. Exercise. 

1. Change by rule, and prefix anti to arctic ; con to temporary, laborer, 
extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, nomen, relative ; ad to scribe, 
credit, firm, fluent, legation, rest, point, ply, tempt ; in to religious, 
legal, legible, liberal, iioble, perfect, penitent, potent, prove ; ex to body, 
broil ; ob to position, press, cur, fend ; sub to cession, fix, fumigation, 
fusion, gest, press, render; syn to pathetic, logistic; ex to centric, flux; 
dis to fuse, late. 

2. Apply the preceding rules by adding ixg, ed, or eb, to beg, sit, dig, dim, 
bed, dog, let, bet, prefer, transfer, forget, dispel, propel, befit, control, 
travel, level, counsel ; love, compile, receive, leave, grieve, confine, 
define. Add able to peace, change, sale; — ly to able, disagreeable, 
conformable, idle, noble ; — ful to skill, will ; — es, ed, or inc., to duty, 
lily, glory, story, history, beauty, beautify, amplify, recti iy. 

3. Correct the following and explain your corrections : — 

Beding, beting, wifes, debared, abhorent, alkalioid, gloryous, citys, 
fancyful, tarrjing, earning, dutyful, bountyful, handaomeest, bloting, 
fomeous, agreeabley, incompatibley. 

Rule for changing final letter. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Analyze incomplete, goodness, hopeful, retrograde. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Impenitent ... is a derivative word. (Why ?) 

Penitent .... is the radical part, and signifies repenting. 

Im is the prefix (in, Rule II.), and signifies not. 

Hence, impenitent, not repenting. 

COMPOUND WORDS. 
27. Formation of Compound Words. 

1. Compound words usually follow the orthography of the 
primitive words of which they are composed. 

2. In - compounds which are closely united (20, 5), full and all drop 
the final 1; as, handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal; but in 
those compounds which are merely temporary, the 11 is retained ; as, 
full-faced, chock-full, all-wise. 

3. When possessives are compounded with other words, they often 
drop the apostrophe; as, herdsmen, helmsman (210, 13, a.). 

4. Chilblain, welcome, tvelfare, and fulfil, drop one I ; shepherd, wherever, 
and whosever, drop an e ; and wherefore and therefore assume one. 

28. Exercise. 

1. Correct the errors in the following examples, and give the rule by which 
each correction is made : — 

Wil, kniting, frized, clif, peacable, bur, stil, manumited, buieth, 
occuring, differring, begg, knel, bels, mobb, bigotted, whigism, gass, 
coquetish, swiming, cryeth, spyed, shily, shuned, veryest, maiest, inter- 
rupting, spoonful, al-powerful, allways, somthing, stilyards, defering, 
prevailing. 

29. Eules for the use of Capitals. 

1. Rule I. The titles of books, and the heads of their parts, 
chapters, sections, and divisions, are usually printed in capitals ; 
as, Classes of Nouns; Compound Relatives. When the 
titles of books are quoted, only their principal words should begin 
with capitals ; as, " Watts on the Mind." Inscriptions on signs 
and monuments are subject to the same rule. 

2. Rule II. The first word of every entire sentence, and of 

Compound Words. Rules for Capitals. I, and II. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — RULES FOR CAPITALS. 29 

.every independent expression, or phrase, should begin with a capi- 
tal ; as, " Evil communications corrupt good manners." " The 
words of the prophet." 

(a.) When the dependent parts of a complete sentence are made into 
separate paragraphs, each part should begin with a capital; as, "Nouns 
are divided into, — 

Proper, which denote individuals, — 

Common, which denote classes." 

3. Rule III. Proper names, and adjectives derived from pro- 
per names, should begin with a capital; as, America, American; 
Boston, Bostonian. 

(a.) When the proper name of a person, place, river, or mountain, has 
become a consolidated compound word, only one capital should be used ; as, 
Northampton, Southbridge, Newcastle ; but when the parts remain separate, 
each should begin with a capital ; as, South Berwick, New York, Old Say- 
brook. In many compound names usage is not uniform. Thus, Newcastle, 
used as the name of some thirty different places in England, Ireland, and 
British America, is consolidated; while in the United States, in some twenty 
different instances, the parts are separated, thus : New-Castle. The same may 
be said of New Haven, New Market, and others. 

4. Rule IV. Titles of honor, office, respect, and distinction, 
usually begin with a capital; as, Chief Justice Marshall, His 
Majesty, General Washington, 

(a.) When a title is used with a proper name, merely for the purpose of 
explanation, it should begin with a small letter; as, The apostle Peter; The 
prophet Daniel. 

5. Rule V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with 
a capital; as, God, Jehovah, The Eternal, The Almighty. 

(a.) The personal pronouns, he, his, him, thou, thy, and thee, when they refer 
to the Deity, sometimes, especially when emphatic, begin with a capital. This 
usage is neither universal nor uniform. . 

G. Rule VI. The first word of every line in poetry should 
begin with a capital. 

7. Rule VII. The words /and should be capitals. 

8. Rule VIII. Any common noun used to denote an object 
personified, or an object to be made specially emphatic, should 
begin with a capital; as, "Cheered with the grateful smell, old 
Ocean smiles" — Milton; "In the Creed the same distinction is 
properly observed" — Ha rrison . 

Rules lor capitals. III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Euls IX. The first word of a direct quotation, so intro- 
duced as to form a sentence of itself, should begin with a capital ; 
as ; " He saith unto hini, Feed my sheep." 

30. Exercise. 

1. Explain by rule the use of each capital in the following examples': — 
Dr. Kane relates many curious facts respecting the Esquimaux. 

"Los3ing's Field Book of the Revolution" gives an interesting account 
of the surrender of the British army under General Burgoyne, to Gene- 
ral Gates, the American commander. He inquired, " For what purpose 
is this waste ?" and I could make no reply. The eye of the Omniscient 
is ever our guard, and the hand of the Almighty our support. My 
beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions : " My name is 
Religion." In the agony of the moment he exclaimed, " 0, I am 
lost." The Austrians were defeated in the battle of Magenta. 
" In colleges in ancient days, 
There dwelt a sage called Discipline." 

2. By the preceding rules, correct the erroneous use of capitals in the follow- 
ing examples, and insert them where they should be it$ed: — 

new york is the largest of all american cities, and i heard, but i 
understood not ; then said i, " o my lord, what shall be the end of these 
things?" huss, the reformer, was a martyr to the cause which he 
espoused, have you visited the falls of niagara ? The auditor has sent 
in his report, the english custom differs from ours, 
"the lightnings flash along the sky, 
The thunder bursts and rolls on high ; 
Jehovah's voice, methinks I hear 
amid the storm, 
as riding on the clouds of even 
he spreads his glory o'er the heaven." 
but wisdom is justified of her children. 



31. Eules for the division of words into Syllables. 

1. Rule I. Every word has as many syllables as there arc 
distinct vowel sounds heard in a correct pronunciation of it ; as, 
near, nev-er. 

(a.) "When two vowels come together, they unite (12.) in one syllable, if in 
the pronunciation only one vowel sound, single or combined (12, 2, 3), is 

Rule IX. for capitals. Syllabication. Rule I. 



ETYMOLOGY — CLASSES OF WORDS. ol 

heard; as, feast, poorly; otherwise they separate into two syllables; as, li-on, 
pa-erile, cooperate. 

(6.) "When the two vowels are the same, the separation is often indicated 
by a diaeresis ( •• ) ; as, preemption, coordinate. 

2. Rule II. The consonants, singly or combined (13.), are 
either prefixed or affixed to the vowels (16, 3, b, c, d), which 
they modify. 

(a.) Primitive words. (1) A single consonant between two vowels is joined 
to the latter when the former is long (4) ; as,pa-per } la-dy, ci-pher ; otherwise, 
it should be joined to the former; as, lep-er, ep-ic, ech-o. 

Note. — The combinations, th, ch, tch, pli, gh, sh, ng, ioh, should be regarded 
as single consonants (11, 3), since they represent only one elementary sound, 
and are never separated when thus used. 

(2.) Two consonants between two vowels are separated, except when a 
mute, and either of the liquids I or r, follow a long vowel ; as, cas-ter, dam-per, 
ap-ple, am-ber ; peo-ple, a-cre, tri-fle. 

(3.) When three consonants come between two vowels, the last, or the last 
two — when they are a mute, and either of the liquids I or ?', — must be joined 
to the latter ; as, emp-ty, am-ple, strug-gle. 

(6.) Derivative words. The prefix should be separated from the radical 
in all cases, except as in Rule II. (1) ; and the suffix always when it forms a 
syllable; as, pre-Jix, suf-tftx ; but pref-ace, not pre-face ; good-ness, tru-ly. 

(c.) Compound words. Compound words are separated into the primitive 
or derivative words which compose them, and these are divided by the pre- 
ceding rules. 

Caution. In writing, never divide a syllable at the end of 
a line. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

32. Definitions. 

1. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and 
various modifications of words. 

2. A word is the sign of an idea, and is cither spoken or 
written. 

Syllabication, Rule II. Primitive, derivative, and compound words. Gaa- 

tion. Etymology. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

33. Classes of Words. 
1. According to their meaning and use, all words are divided 
into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. 

2. All words are divided according to the number of syllables they con' 
tain, into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. (18.) 

3. Words are divided according to their formation, into primitive, de- 
rivative, and compound. (20.) 

4. A primitive word is always a simple word. 

5. Words which vary their forms in construction are called declinable. 
Those which do not vary them are indeclinable. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 
34. Parts of Speech Defined. 

1. In English, there are eigh£ parts of speech — the Noun, 
the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposi- 
tion, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

2. A noun is the name of an object; as,, fruit, Henry, Boston. 

(a.) The noun (from the Latin "nomen," a name) embraces a large number 
of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals, places, or 
things, material or immaterial, are called nouni. 

3. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun ; as, 
good, faithful, this, some. 

(a.) The adjective (from the Latin "adjectus," added to, i. e., to a noun) 
embraces a large class of words, which are added to nouns to express their 
qualities, or to define them ; as, "worthy citizens ;" " this book." Those words 
which are united to nouns answering such questions as What? What kind? 
Hoio many ? are adjectives. 

4. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as, 
/, he, you, icho. 

(a.) This part of speech (derived from the Latin "pro," for, and "nomen," 
a name) embraces but a small number of different words ; yet any noun may 
be represented by a pronoun. It will be seen that these three parts of speech 
are intimately connected : the first is the name of an object; the second 
expresses the properties of an object; the third may take the place of the 
first. 

5. A vevb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; as, 
be, read, sleep, is loved. 

(a.) Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the Latin 

Parts of speech. Noun. Adjective. Pronoun. Verb. 



ETYMOLOGY — PARTS OF SPEECH — NOUN. 66 

" verbum," the word, i. e., the important word; it embraces a large class of 
words. The different uses of the verb, as well as those of the other parts of 
speech, will be explained hereafter. 

6. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, 
adjective, participle, or another adverb ; as, quickly, first, far. 

(a.) The adverb (from the Latin "ad" and " verbum," added to a verb) 
embraces all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, 
to denote time, place, manner, &c. 

7. A. preposition is a word used to show the relation between a 
noun or pronoun and some other word ; as, from, upon, on, with. 

(a.) This part of speech includes a small list of words, which are used to 
denote the relations of place, time, cause, manner, 'property, quality, &c It is 
called a preposition (from the Latin "prae," before, and "positio," a placing, 
a placing be/ore) from the circumstance of its being placed before the object 
with which it is always associated. 

8. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the 
parts of sentences; as, and, but, or. 

(a.) The conjunction includes but a small number of words, which are used 
to join the parts of a sentence; it is derived from the Latin " conjunctus," 
joined together. 

9. The interjection is used to express some strong or sudden 
emotion of the mind ; as, ! alas ! 

(a.) The term interjection (from the Latin " interjectus," thrown between) 
is applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentence, 
but may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our feelings. 

NOUNS. 

35. Definition and Distinctions. 

1. A noun is the name of an object; as, house, tree, Boston, 
goodness. 

2. The word object, as here used, should be carefully distinguished 
from the same term employed in Syntax, to denote the complement of 
the transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material 
or immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone: and is 
opposed to the term attribute, which always represents something depend- 
ent upon, belonging to, or inherent in an object. 

3. It will be perceived that the idea of substance or independent 
existence is the basis of the distinction between the noun and the adjec- 
tive; yet it must be remembered thai nouns or adjectives are mere 

Adverb. Preposition. Conjunction. Interjection. Noun defined. Object. 
Attribute. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words, so called, because the one denotes a substance, or an object, and 
the other an attribute. 

4. It will be seen, moreover, that an attribute, when regarded as an 
independent existence, that is, when abstracted from the object to which 
it belongs, becomes an object of itself. The name of such an attribute 
is a noun, and is usually derived from the word denoting the attribute ; 
as, good, good-ness, bright, bright-ness. 

5. Whenever a word, syllable, letter, or symbol of any kind is spoken 
of as an object, it must be regarded as a noun; as, "ITe is a personal 
pronoun." "Un is a prefix." "A is a vowel." " -f- is the sign of 
addition." ", is a comma." 

6. So, again, when a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, is used to 
denote an object, it becomes a noun; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." 
" That you have wronged me doth appear in this." 

7. The noun is often called a substantive. All phrases or clauses, when 
used as nouns, and even pronouns, are called substantives. 

36. Proper and Common Nouns. 

1. Nouns are divided into two classes — proper and common. 

2. A proper noun is the name of an individual object; as, 
James, Erie. 

3. A common noun is a name which applies to each individual 
of a class of objects; as, man, boy, house. 

4. As a proper noun denotes simply an individual by itself, whenever 
it is made to represent an individual as belonging to a class, it becomes 
a common noun ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age," i. e., a distinguished 
orator. Still, when the same name, as Thomas, happens to be given to 
several persons, but to each individually, it is as truly a proper name, 
as though it had been given to one alone. 

5. Common nouns, on the contrary, may become proper, when, by 
personification, or special use, the object named is regarded as an indi- 
vidual, not belonging to a class ; as, "0 Justice, thou art fled to brutish 
beasts, and men have lost their reason." "The Common." "The 
Park." (See Introduction, Lesson XV.) 

6. Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned collective, 
abstract, and verbal nouns. 

7. A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes more than 
one object; as, army, family, flock. 

8. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an action, considered 

An abstract attribute. Symbols and letters used as objects. Substantive. 
Nouns, proper and common. Collective and abstract nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS PROPERTIES. 35 

apart from the object to which it belongs; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom, 
movement. 

9. A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He was convicted 
of stealing." 

10. The infinitive is a kind of verbal noun ; as, " To see the sun is 
pleasant." 

37. Exercise. 

1. Tell which of the following words designate objects and which properties ; 
then select the nouns : — 

Horse, old, good, peach, vine, heavy, hard, strong, hill, star, empty, 
ocean, hilly, wright, William, European, engine, road, stile, rose, upright, 
smoke, balloon, oyster, sea, chariot, wild, hungry. 

2. Select the nouns from the following sentence : — 

As soon as the sun was seen coming over the hills, the farmer aroused 
the laborers from slumber, who, with their scythes on their shoulders, 
and pitchforks in their hands, marched gayly to the field to begin the 
labors of the day. 

3. Tell which of the following nouns are common, and which are proper : — 
Posterity, virtue, Rome, tea, Nero, Cicero, Germanv, Paris, pomp, 

sunshine, meadow, Pekin, gulf, Medici, astronomy, Darius, father, calico, 
London, dungeon, district, Japan. 

4. Tell which of the following common nouns are abstract, which are coU 
lective, which are verbal : — 

Army, tasting, goodness, heat, harmless, rising, sailing, wisdom, flock, 
wonder, teaching, energy, frankness, freedom, multitude, teething, 
shutting, dulness, company. 

5. Change the following names of properties into abstract nouns : — 
Good, cheerful, diligent, rapid, dark, strong, heavy, lovely, brilliant, 

beautiful, flaming, brave, swift, solid, easy. Thus, good ness. 

6. Write the names of fifteen objects in this room. Select all the nouns from 
page — in your Reader. {Let the teacher assign the page.) 

7. Fill the blanks in the following examples zvith nouns of your own 
selection : — 

is short. are strong. have fallen. u 

a quadruped. were destroyed. will decay. will 

rise at six o'clock. is the king of beasts. was the father 

of his country. was a tyrant. were overthrown in the 

Red Sea. ■ mourned for Absalom. shine at night. 

Verbal nouns. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

33. Properties of Nouns. 

To nouns belong the properties of person, number, (jender, and 
case. 

-39. Person of Uouns. 

1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows 
the relation of the speaker to the object (35, 2) spoken of. 

2. The object spoken of may be, (1.) the speaker himself, (2.) the person 
spoken to, or (3.) a party neither speaking, nor spoken to, but merely 
spoken of. Hence — 

3. There are three persons — the first, second, and third. 

4. The first person denotes the speaker; as, u I, John, saw 
these things." 

5. The second person denotes the person spoken to; as, 
u Children, obey your parents." 

6. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; 
as, " Thomas did not come." " The harvest is abundant." 

7. Person, as a property of the noun or pronoun, should be carefully 
distinguished from person, as used in common language to denote an 
intelligent being. It denotes, in Grammar, a personal or party relation, 
that is, the relation of the party speaking to the party spoken of, whether 
the latter happen to be the speaker himself, the hearer, or any other 
object. 

8. These relations of person, though truly attributes of the noun, 
are never indicated by any change of the word, but are properly repre- 
sented by personal pronouns, a class of words made to take the place of 
nouns for this express purpose. 

9. Nouns in the first or second person are never used as the subject 
or object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with either, for the 
purpose of explanation ; as, "I, Paul, beseech you." 

10. The names of inanimate objects are in the second person, when 
the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus addressed 
are personified, and are treated as though they were actual hearers ; a3, 
"And I have loved thee, Ocea?i." 

40. Exercise. 

1. Tell the person of the nouns in the following sentences: — 

Nero was a tyrant. Children, obey your parents. Philip, thou art a 

Properties of nouns. Person, first, second, third. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 37 

man. Delays are dangerous. His praise, ye brooks, attune. The fer- 
ryman took us safely across the river. Keep thy heart with all diligence. 
King Philip was the last of the Wampanoags. "Let my country be 
thine," said his preserver. Babylon, how art thou fallen ! I, Daniel, 
was grieved in my spirit. 

2. Fill the blanks in the following expressions ; tell the person of the noun 
or pronoun inserted: — 

. was executed for murder. — art the man. The lady 

lost purse and all contents. are willing to re- 
main. has strangely ended. delight in surf bathing. 

The father called sons and daughters around ■ . 

The duke was esteemed for uprightness, and the duchess beloved 

for kindness. Art a spirit of earth or air. wast 

wrong to urge me so. 

41. dumber of Houns. 

1. Number is that property of a noun (or pronoun) which dis- 
tinguishes one object from more than one. 

2. Nouns have two numbers — the singular and the plural. 

3. The singular number denotes but one object; as, horse, 
river, nation. 

4. The plural denotes more than one object; as, liorscs, rivers, 
nations. (See Introduction. Lesson XYI.) 

42. Regular Formation of the Plural. 

1. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 

(af) By adding s, when the singular ends with a sound that can 
unite or coalesce with s ; as, book, booJcs ; tree, trees, — 

(b.) By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound that 
cannot coalesce with s; as, box, boxes; church, churches. 

2. When cs is added, s has the sound of z ; as, fox, foxes ; when s only 
is added, it has the sound of z when it unites or coalesces with a vowel ; 
as, folio, folios ; flea, fleas. It follows the rule (13, 3) for the combination 
of consonants, when it follows a consonant; that is, it is s aspirate when 
it unites with an aspirate; as, hat, hats; cap, C(rj>s ; turf turfs; clock, 
clocks; it is s subvocal (or z) when it follows a subvocal ; as, lad, lads ; 
log, logs; ball, balls; firm, farms : fin, fins; tear, wars. 

Number. Singular. Plural. Plurals regularly formed. Sound of s. 
Added syllable. 
4 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The s or es adds a syllable -when it does not coalesce with the final 
syllable of the singular; as, church, church-es ; race, rac-es ; cage, cag-es. 
The s or es does not add a syllable when it does coalesce with the final 
syllable ; as, work, works ; echo, echoes. 



43. Irregular Formation of the Plural. 

1. When the final s, contrary to the rule (42, 2), is subvocal, after the 
aspirate sounds/, fc, the/ must be changed (13, 3) into its correlative 
v; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives; sheaf, sheaves; thief, thieves. "When s is 
aspirate, as in the plural of dwarf, brief, scarf, reef, chief, grief, kerchief 
handkerchief gulf, surf, turf, serf, proof, hoof, roof, safe, fife, strife, the / 
is not changed. Staff, when meaning a stick, has staves for its plural; 
when meaning a set of officers, it has staffs. The plural of wharf, in the 
United States, is ivharves; in England, wharfs. 

2. The s added to th aspirate is also subvocal (except in truth, youth, 
and, it may be, a few others), and would cause a similar change in the 
orthography of the plural, were not the correlative (6.) also represented 
by th; as, oath, oaths; bath, baths. 

3. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add es, notwith- 
standirg s alone would coalesce with o (42, 1) ; as, cargo, cargoes. Zero, 
canto, grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, portico, tyro, halo, add 
only s. Yet by some writers es is added. Nouns ending in o, preceded 
by a vowel, follow the general rule ; as, folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. 

4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant (25, 4), change y into 
ies ; as, glory, glories ; mercy, mercies. Formerly, these words in the sin- 
gular, ended in ic; as, glorie, mercie ; their plurals were then formed 
regularly. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form the plural 
regularly ; as, day, days ; key, keys. 

5. The following plurals are very irregular ; as, man, men ; woman, 
women; ox, oxen; goose, geese; child, children ; foot, feet ; louse, lice; mouse, 
mice; cow, formerly kine, but now regular, cows ; tooth, teeth. 

6. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular plural, but the 
two forms have usually different significations ; as, brother, brothers (of 
the same family) ; brethren (of the same society) ; die, dies (stamps) ; 
dice (cubes used in gaming) ; genius, getiiuses (men of genius) ; genii 
(spirits) ; index, indexes (tables of reference) ; indices (signs in algebra) ; 
pea, peas (distinct seeds) ; pease (quantity) ; penny, pennies (coins) ; pence 
(a sum, or value). 

A 7. Names of substances, and most abstract nouns, commonly have no 
plural form; as, gold, cider, -flax, milk, tar, goodness, darkness. "When dif- 

Plural irregularly formed. Nouns ending in f,fe, — in th, — in o, — in y. 
Man, woman, &c. Brother, die &c. Names of substances. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 89 

ferent hinds of the substances are referred to, the plural form is used; 
as, waters, wines, teas. 

$ . In compound words, if the -word denoting the principal idea is 
placed first, it is changed to form the plural ; as, court-martial, courts- 
martial; cousin-german, cousins- ger man ; hanger-on, hangers-on; but if 
the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed ; as, hand-ful, 
hand-fuls ; both parts being (apparently) equally prominent are changed 
in man-servant, woman-servant, and knight-templar ; as, men-servants, women- 
servants, knights-templars. 

9. Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding 's ; as, 
the s's; the i's ; the *'*; the 9's; the -J-' 5 - 

10. "When other parts of speech are used as nouns, their plurals are 
formed regularly ; as, " The ifs and huts ;" " The whys and wherefores ;" 
"At sizes and sevens." 

11. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals ; 
as, antithesis, antitheses; arcanum, arcana; automaton, automata; axis, axes ; 
bandit, banditti; basis, bases; beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; criterion, cri- 
teria; crisis, crises; datum, data; desideratum, desiderata; encomium, enco- 
mia; effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; ellipsis, ellipses ; focus, foci ; for- 
mula, formula? ; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses ; madame, mesdames ; 
magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda ; medium, media; minutia, minu- 
tiae ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebula}; 
phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii; seraph, seraphim; stimulus, stimuli; 
stratum, strata; stamen, stamina; vortex, vortices. 



44. Plural of Proper Hames. 

1. Single Names. The proper name of an individual object, has no 
plural. 

2. When several of the same name or family are spoken of together, 
the name takes the plural form ; as, " The Tudors;" "The twelve Ccesars." 

3. So, also, the proper names of races, communities, and nations, are 
plural; as, " The Indians ;" "The Jesuits ;" " The Romans." 

4. The plurals of proper names arc formed, as a general rule, accord- 
ing to the analogy of common names ; as, Canada, Canadas ; Jew, Jews ; 
Ptolemy, Ptolemies. 

5. Complex Names. When two or more names applied to the same 
individual, stand in a sort of apposition to each other, they are gene- 
rally considered as one complex name, and are made plural by varying 

Compounds. Letters, murks, &c. Other parts of Bpeech used as nouns. 
Nouns from foreign languages. Plural of tingle proper names, — of oomples 

names. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the last only; as, "The George IVashingtons ;" "May there not be Sir 
Isaac Newtons in every science ?" — Watts. 

6. A title and a name. When a title, as Miss, Mrs., Mr., Gen., Capt., 
or Dr., is prefixed to a proper name, usage has not been uniform in the 
formation of the plural. Sometimes the title, sometimes the name, and 
sometimes both have been varied ; as, The Misses Brown ; The Mi*9 
Thompsons ; The Misses Winthrops. 

7. In all these cases, the relative prominence of the name and title 
for {he most part, determines the plural form. Thus,* — 

(a.) "When the name is made prominent, that alone, and not the title, takes 
the plural form. In speaking of three persons by the name of Brown, we 
should say (44, 2) " The three Browns ;" thus distinguishing them from the 
Smiths, or those of any other name. Now, with this idea uppermost, if we 
wished also to distinguish them as young ladies, we should add, incidentally, 
the distinctive title, — " the three Miss Browns." So, the Dr. Smiths. 

(b.) When the title is to be made prominent, that alone should be varied. 
Thus, if we should speak of three persons, and say the three Misses, we should 
distinguish them as ladies, from so many gentlemen ; in the same way, we 
say, the tico Drs., the three Generals. If now, with the title prominent, we 
would incidentally add the name, we should say, (1.) if the names were dif- 
ferent, " the three Misses Brown, Aticood, and Putnam ;" (2.) if the same, " the 
three 3Iisses Brown," and especially so without the numeral : as, " The Misses 
Brown." In the former of these cases, if the name were prominent, we should 
say, "Miss Broion, Miss Atwood, and Miss Putnam." 

(c.) When two titles are made equally prominent, they are both varied; as, 
"The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's;" "The Knights Baronets" 
(43, 8). And so it would seem, by the same law, that, when a title and a name 
are made equally emphatic, they should both be varied. Thus, the Misses 
Winthrop, in distinction from the Messrs. Winthrop; and the Misses Winthrops, 
in distinction from the Messrs. Mortons. Yet, usage seems to be nearly uni- 
form in placing the plural name after Mrs.; as, " The Mrs. Whites ;" and the 
plural title before the names, when persons of different names are mentioned 
together ; as, " The Misses Wilson and Everett;" "Messrs. Little and Brown." 

45. Remarks on the Number of IJoims. 

1. Nouns without a Plural. Proper nouns, except as in (44, 2, 3), 
and nouns denoting substance (43, 7), except when different sorts are 
expressed, have no plural ; as, gold, grass, wine. 

2. Nouns without the Singular. The following nouns have no 
singular : embers, oats, scissors, vespers, literati, antipodes, ashes, clothes, 
billiards, ides, intestines, vitals, bcllous, draivcrs, nippers, tongs, shears, &o. 
Lungs, boivels, and some others have a singular denoting a part of the 
whole ; as, lung, bowel. 

Plural of a title and a name. Nouns without a plural. Nouns without the 
singular. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS GENDER. 41 

3. The following words are plural in respect to their original form, 
but singular or plural in respect to their meaning : alms, amends, news, 
riches, pains (meaning effort), odds, wages, molasses, series, suds, corps, 
measles, tidings, mumps, rickets, nuptials ; as also the names of some of 
the sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics, mnemonics. 

Note. — News is now regarded as singular ; so also measles and molasses, 
although they have the plural form. 

4. Nouns either Singular or Plural. Some nouns are alike in 
both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, salmon, brace, 
couple, dozen, yoke, gross. 

48. Exercise. 

1. Tell which of the folloiving nouns are singular, and which arc plural : — 
Daughter, clay, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, 

inkstand, horn, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, scissors, news, trout, milk, 
purity, chimneys. 

2. Write the plural of the folloiving nouns, and give the rule for the termi- 
nation : — 

Work, example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm, 
bird, bond, thief, sex, day, filly, half, watch, iron, vinegar, turkey, 
tomato, potato, spoonful, step-father. 

3. Tell the singular of the following : — 

Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypothe- 
ses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata, cheru- 
bim, sheep, formulce, swine, solos, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavos, 
courts-martial, inkstands, indices. 

4. Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the cor- 
rection : — 

Negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thief's, yokes, calfs, phenomenons, cri- 
terions, mans, turkies, flys, father-in-laws, grottoes, son-in-laws, cups- 
full, echoes. 

47. Gender of Nouns. 

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex. 

2. There are three genders — the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

o. Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender ; as, 
man, Icing, hero. 

Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning. Nouns either singular or 
plural. Gender, — masculine, feminine, neuter. 
4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Nouns which denote females are of the feminine gender; 
as, woman, queen, mother. 

5. Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the 
neuter gender ; as, tree, rock, paper. 

6. Some nouns may denote either males or females ; as, parent, child, 
cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender ; but as 
the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connec- 
tion, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. In case^ the 
gender is not so determined, such nouns may be called masculine. 

7. By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine or femi- 
nine gender is applied to inanimate objects ; thus we say of a ship, 
" She sails well;" of the sun, "He rises in the east." The use of this 
figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. " Her flag 
streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight." 
" The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews." 

8. In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even of infants, 
the distinction of sex is not observed ; as, " And it became a serpent, 
and Moses fled from before it." "The child was 4ying in its cradle." 
But in speaking of animals distinguished for boldness, size, or any other 
marked quality peculiar to the male, we attribute to them the masculine 
gender, even when the sex is not known ; as, " The eagle is the king of 
birds." 

9. Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of. unity, or take the plu- 
ral form, are neuter ; as, " The army, on its approach, raised a shout of 
defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural 
form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the collec- 
tion ; as, " The jury could not agree upon their verdict." 

10. When the sexes are distinguished by different words (48, 1), the 
masculine is used to include both sexes; as, " Jenner conferred.a great 
benefit on man." 

48. Methods of distinguishing the Sexes. 

1. By using different words : — 

Examples. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sou) ; boy, girl; brother, 
sister ; buck, doe; bull, cow ; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, 
mother ; gander, goose ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen ; lad, lass ; 
lord, lady; male, female ; man, woman; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; son, 
daughter; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; monk, nun; 
hart, roe; master, mistress ; Mister, Mistress {Mr., Mrs.); papa, mamma; 
sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel; sivain. nymph. 

Gender shown by different word3. 



ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER — GENDER. 43 

(a.) Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines ; as, baker, 
hrewer, porter, carrier; while some feminine nouns have no corresponding 
masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress. 

2. By a difference of termination : — 

Examples. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, administratrix ; 
adulterer, adultress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; author, authoress ; baron, 
baroness ; bridegroom, bride ; benefactor, benefactress ; count, countess ; dau- 
phin, dauphiness ; deacon, deaconess; director, directress; duke, duchess; 
emperor, empress ; executor, executrix ; governor, governess ; heir, heiress ; 
hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress ; host, hostess ; instructor, instructress ; Jew, 
Jewess ; landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness ; marquis, marchioness ; moni- 
tor, monitress ; patron, patroness ; poet, poetess ; priest, priestess ; prince, 
princess; prophet, prophetess; shepherd, shepherdess; testator, testatrix; 
tiger, tigress ; tutor, tutoress ; widower, widow ; god, goddess ; giant, giantess; 
negro, n egress ; songster, so?igstress ; sorcerer, sorceress; sultan, sultana. 

8. By joining some distinguishing "word: — - 

Examples. Landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; -peacock, 
peahen ; Ae-goat, she-goat ; maw-servant, maid-serxant ; 7nale-child, female- 
child; coc&-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; grandfather, grandmother; English- 
wan, Englishwoman; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress. 



49. Exercise. 

1. Tell which of the following nouns are masculine, which feminine, and 
which neuter : — 

Picture, walnut, duchess, Spaniard, letter, sailor, queen, priest, cur- 
tain, lioness, nun, captain, widow, wizard, deacon, hospital, banner, 
brother, countess. 

2. Give the feminine gender of the following nouns: — 

Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew, male, lord, widower, 
husband, beau, uncle, host, poet, gander, sultan, master, king, bride- 
groom, prince, nephew, duke. 

3. Give the masculine gender of the following : — 

Empress, mother, sister, marchioness, woman, she-goat, electress, 
witch, doe. 

4. Fill the blanks in the following examples ; the first five with common 
nouns in the masculine gender : — 

is patient. loves his sister. reigns king of 

beasts. exposes his wares for Bale. should venerate the 

old. The next fivt with i>r<>jh/- <>r common nouns in the feminine gender: 

Gender .-l.uwu by different terminations, — by distinguishing word. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was Queen of England. entertained her guests with 



grace. was a distinguished poetess. was the nightin- 
gale of Sweden. loves her offspring. The next five with collective 

nouns, and tell the gender : met at the house of a friend. 

brought in a verdict. were appointed by the chair. 

must obey its leaders. listened with delight. 



5. Select the nouns in the following example ; tell the class, person, num- 
ber, and gender of each noun : — 

" Thou too sail on, Ship of State ! 
Sail on, Union, strong and great! 
Humanity, with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel." — Longfellow. 



50. Case of Uouns. 

1. Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other 
words. 

2. There are three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

3. The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, and 
is commonly used as the subject of a proposition; as, " George 
speaks." " The door was shut." (See Introduction, Lesson 
XIX.) 

4. Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case 
may be used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition ; 2d, it may be used 
to identify the subject or attribute ; 3d, it may be independent of any 
other word; as, 1st, "Peter was an apostle;" "The stars are suns;" 
2d, " Milton, thepoet, was blind." " It was John, the beloved disciple ;" 
3d, "Henry, attend to your studies;" "Mary, are you ready?" 

5. The possessive case denotes the relation of property or pos- 
session ; as, " David's harp." 

6. The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding an apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s to the nominative ; as, 
man's, David's. 

7. "When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added; 

Case, — nominative. Uses of the nominative,— possessive. Formation of 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — CASE. 45 

as, hoys', ladies . But the (') and s are added when it ends in 
any other letter; as, men's, women's, brethren's. 

8. The possessive termination ('s) in the singular, is evidently a con- 
traction of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English genitive es or is. The ( ' ) 
in the plural is a modern invention, used to denote the possessive case. 
In Lord Grey's letter to the Prince of Wales, written the latter part of 
the twelfth or the first of the thirteenth century, are these expressions, 
— "Our liege Lordes pryve seal;" "The Kynges commaundement ;" 
"The Erles ground." 

9. When the singular ends in s, or in a letter or combination of letters 
having the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would be harsh, 
the poets and some prose writers add the ( ' ) only ; as, Peleus' son, 
goodness' sake, conscience 1 sake, Jloses' seat, the cockatrice' den. 

10. Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting the 
form of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s, some 
adding the (') only, and some the (') and s. Thus we have Adams' 
express, or Adams's express ; Otis' letters, or Otis' s letters. The weight 
of authority is in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of euphony 
will admit ; especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the word ; 
as, Bates's Sermons, Barnes's Notes. 

11. In nouns whose singular and plural are alike (45, 4) the apostro- 
phe should precede the s in the singular, and follow it in the plural ; as, 
deer's, deers' ; sheep's, sheeps'. 

12. For the. sound of the apostrophic s, and the increase of syllables, 
see (42, 2, 3). 

13. The use of the apostrophe and s to mark the plural of letters and 
signs (43, 9), has no connection with case. 

14. When a noun follows a transitive verb or a preposition, it 
is in the objective case; as, "Thomas opened his 7cnife." "The 
bird sat on the tree.' f 

15. The nominative case answers the question Who? or What? as, 
" Who writes ?" "John writes." "What alarms him?" "The storm 
alarms him." The possessive case answers the question Whose? as, 
" Whose book have you?" "I have my brother's book." The objective 
case answers the question Whom? or What? as, " Whom do you see?' 
"I see the captain." "On what does he stand ?" " He stands upon the 
deck." 

10. The possessive ease may be known by its form. I'm the forms 
of the nominative and the objective are alike; hence they must be de- 
termined by their relation to Other words. 

Origin of ('s.) Objective case. Questions answered by each ease. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

51. Declension of Nouns. 
The declension of a noun is its variation to denote number and 





EXAMPLES. 






1. Boy. 




Nom. 

Pos. 

Obj. 


Sing. 
Boy, 
Boy's, 
Boy, 

2. Fly. 


Phir. 
Boys, 
Boys', 
Boys. 


Nom. 
Pos. 
Obj. 


Sing. 

Fly, 

Fly's, 

Fly, 

3. John. 


Plur. 

Flies, 
Flies', 
Flies. 


Nom. 
Pos. 


Sing. 
John, 
John's, 
John, 


Plur. 
Wanting. 


Obj. 








4. Goodness. 




Nom. 
Pos. 


Sing. 
Goodness, 
Goodness', 
Goodness, 


Plur. 
Wanting. 


Obj. 






52. Exercise. 

1. Put the following nouns in Italics into the possessice case, and let each 
expression be written on your slates, thus : — 

The carpenter axe. The carpenter's axe. 

Abraham son. David harp. Moses law. Adams Arithmetic. Wcb- 
ster Dictionary. The coachman dog barked at. the herdsman sheep. The 
lion roar aroused the shepherd dog. The farmer corn was destroyed by 
his neighbor cow. 

Declension of nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUN— PARSING. 47 

2. Give the rule for forming the possessive case. 

8. Write the following nouns in the possessive plural, and place some appro- 
priate noun after them, thus : — 

'The tailors' shears." "The men's apartment." 

Tailor, seaman, captain, doctor, brother, valley, folly, alley, ally, hero, 
arch, child, director, president, sheep. 

53. Parsing. 
1. Parsing consists, — 

(1.) In telling the part of speech. 

(2.) In telling its properties or accidents. 

(3.) In pointing out its relation to other words, and giving the 
rule for its construction. 
2. In parsing a noun, — 
(1.) Say it is a noun, and why. 
(2.) Common or proper, and why. 
(3.) Of the 1st, 2d, or 3d person, and why. 
(4.) Of the singular or plural number, and why. 
(5.) Of the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and why. 
(6.) Of the nominative, possessive or objective case, and why. 
(7.) The rule for construction. 

Note. — The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled in the Introduction, 
may be able to introduce this third element of parsing, if the teacher choose. 
The Rules of Syntax will of course be anticipated, if applied here. The 
teacher can omit or use the rules, as he may think best. 

54. Exercise. 

MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 

1. Washington, the successful general, was also a true patriot. 
Washington . is a noun, — it is the name of an object ; proper, — it is the 
name of an individual object ; third person, — it denotes the 
person spoken of; singular number, — it denotes but one; 
masculine gender, — it denotes a male ; nominative case, — it is 
the subject of the proposition " Washington was a patriot," 
according to Rule I.: "A noun or pronoun used as the 
subject of a proposition, must be in the nominative case." 

Outlines for parsing. Models for parsing. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

General ... is a noun (why ?) ; common (why) ; third person (why ?) ; 
singular number (why?); masculine gender (why?); nomi- 
native case, and is put in apposition with Washington. 
Rule VI. : "A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify 
another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same 
case." 

Patriot .... is a noun (why?); common (why?); third person (why?); 
singular number (why ?) ; masculine gender (why ?) ; nomina- 
tive case (why ?) ; it is used as the attribute of the propo- 
sition, "Washington was a patriot." Rule II. : "A noun 
or pronoun used as the attribute of a proposition, must be 
in the nominative case." 

2. John, bring me Fanny 's History, that book lying on the desk. 

John ... is a proper noun, second person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case independent. Rule X.: "The 
nominative case independent, and the interjection, have no 
grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence." 

Fanny's . is a proper noun, third person, singular number, feminine 
gender, possessive case (why ?) and limits History. Rule VII. : 
"A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun by denoting 
possession, must be in the possessive case." 

History . is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, objective case, and is the object of bring. Rule VIII. : 
"A noun or pronoun, used as the object of a transitive verb, 
or its participles, must be in the objective case." 

Book ... is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, objective case, and is put in apposition with History. 
Rule VI. 

Desk ... is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, and is the object of the preposition on. 
Rule XIV.: "A noun or pronoun, used as the object of a 
preposition, must be in the objective case." * 

3. Select the nouns in the following examples, and parse them according to 
the forms given above : — 

The first land discovered by Columbus, was an island, to which he 
gave the name of San Salvador. King Agrippa, believest thou the 
prophets ? In truth, the proper rest for man, is change of occupation. 

In autumn, there is no sudden blight of youth and beauty ; no sweet 
hopes of life are blasted, no generous aim at usefulness and advancing 

Models for parsing. 



ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 49 

virtue cut short. The year is drawing to its natural term, the seasons 
have run their usual course ; all their blessings have been enjoyed, and 
all our precious things are cared for. — Cooper. 

One moment I looked from the hill's gentle slope, 

All hushed was the billow's commotion, 
And methought that the light-house looked lovely as Hope, 

That star on life's tremulous ocean. — Moore. 

Land of the beautiful and brave, 

The freeman's home, the martyr's grave, 

The nursery of giant men, 

Whose deeds are linked with every glen ! 

My own green land for ever ! — Whittier. 

4. Let the whole class parse these or other words on the slate, thus : — 
Washington, is N. p. 3d. s. m. nom. R. I. 
Fanny's is N. p. 3d. s. f. pos. R. VII. 
Desk is N. c. 3d. s. n. obj. R. XIV. 



ADJECTIVES. 

55. Definitions. 

1. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun; as, 
" a good school;" "a diligent boy;" " this table;" " ten men;" 
" the box." 

2. All words which have the construction of the adjective are here 
considered under the head of adjectives. The article, like the adjective, 
belongs to the noun; it has the same construction as the adjective, and 
is hence placed among adjectives. 

3. Every adjective is a dependent or subordinate word, and must 
belong to some noun or pronoun as its principal. 

4. When the noun or pronoun to which the adjective belongs has been 
previously used in the same sentence, or is some indefinite word, as, 
person, some one, or some thing, it may be omitted; as, "I will give you 
this book, if you will give me that [book]." "The kingdom of heaven 
suffereth violence, and the violent [persons] take it by force." 

5. An adjective belonging to a noun understood, or omitted, takes the 
place of the latter, and is said to be an adjective used as a noun. 

Adjectives defined. Adjective u dependent word. Adjectives used as 
nouns. 

5 D 



W ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5Q. Classes of Adjectives. 

1. Adjectives are divided into two classes — limiting and auali- 

2. A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict the meaning 
of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities; as, " the 
house;'' " five books;" " this pen." 

3. Limiting adjectives are divided into three classes — articles } 
pronominal adjectives, and numeral adjectives. 



57. Articles. 

1. The particular limiting adjectives, the, and a or an, are 
called articles. 

2. The is called the definite article, because it points out some 
particular thing; as, " the desk;" " the sun." 

3. A or an, is called an indefinite article, because it does not 
point out any particular thing; as, " a pen ;" " an orchard." 

4. An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a consonant 
sound; as, " tm apple;" " a pin;" " an hour; " a union;" "an 
honor." 

5. Although the article is intimately connected with the limitation «f 
nouns, it is to be regarded rather as the sign of limitation than as itself 
a limiting word. When one says, " The man," the gives notice to the 
hearer that some particular man is regarded in the mind of the speaker. 
He will point out, by limiting or individualizing, who that particular 
man is. A, or an, again, is a sign that the speaker, in regarding a mul- 
titude of objects, of the same kind, thinks of one, but no specific or 
particular one The noun may be limited to show what class or descrip- 
tion of objects is meant, but not to show any particular individual. 

6. A, or an, however, may be said to limit whenever it prevents a 
noun from being used in its widest sense ; as, man = the whole human 
race ; a man = one man, but no particular one. The, again, may be 
said to extend the meaning of a noun in the singular, when it is used 
in such examples as these : " The horse" = all horses. " The dog," &c. 

7. The article has the construction of the limiting adjective, and is to 
be parsed like it. 

Adjectives limiting and qualifying. Articles, — definite — indefinite. An 
before a vowel. A before a consonant. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES: — NUMERALS. i L 

58. Exercise. 

1. Point out the articles in the following examples ; tell which are definite 
and which are indefinite : — 

The hat, a book, a knife, a box, an heir, an ox, a plough, an orchard, 
an industrious man, an honest man, a good citizen, a hill, a huge round 
stone, the enemy, the union, the ewe, a university. 

59. Pronominal Adjectives. 

1. Those limiting adjectives which may, without the use of the 
article, represent a noun when understood, are called pronomi- 
nal adjectives ; as, " That (book) is his; this is yours." 

2. The principal pronominal adjectives are, this, that, these, 
tlwse, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, some, 
one, none, any, all, such, much, both, few, fewer, fewest, first, last, 
little, less, least, many, more, most, own, same, several, sundry, 
enough. 

3. When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are gone- 
rally called pronouns. They may more properly be called limiting adjec- 
tives (pronominal adjectives), used as nouns ; as, " This is my book." The 
articles never represent a noun understood. 

4. Qualifying adjectives may also represent a noun when understood, 
but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy." 

5. All is sometimes a noun ; as, " He robbed me of my house, my 
goods, my home, my all." Both is frequently a conjunction; as, "I 
both saw and heard him." 

6. Each, every, either, neither, are used distributively. This and that, 
with their plurals, these and those, are used demonstratively. None, any, 
all, such, whole, some, both, one, other, another, are used indefinitely. 

7. These, those, all, many, both, few, fewer, fewest, several, sundry, usually 
require a noun in the plural; as, "These days; " "Those plants." 

8. Either and neither are used with reference to two things only. "When 
more than two objects are referred to, any and none should be used. 

9. One and other are declined thus : 





Sing. 


Plur. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


One, 


Ones, 


Norn 


Other, 


Others, 


Pos. 


One's, 


Ones', 


Pos. 


Other's, 


Others', 


Obj. 


One; 


Ones. 


Obj. 


Other: 


Others. 



Pronominal adjectives used as nouns. Qualifying adjectives used as nouns. 
All and both. Bach, every, to. This, that. None, any, A-. Brfcber and 
Neither. One and other declined. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



60. Exercise. 



1. Point out the pronominal adjectives in the folloicing sentences: — 
This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more studious 
than those. The former plan has yielded to the latter. Each exercise 
was well written. Every accused one was acquitted. The first method 
is better than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. Few men are 
of the same mind. Much remains to be said upon all these points. 
Our own wishes must often be yielded to those of others. More were 
present than were expected. Little hope was entertained of his reco- 
very. Neither remark was just. The same course was pursued by 
several of the members. Much harm arises from imprudence. " Unto 
me, who am less than the least of all saints." 

61. Numeral Adjectives. 

1. Numeral adjectives are those which express number; as, 
one, two } three, first, second, &c. 

2. Numeral adjectives are divided into, Cardinal, which denote 
how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. j Ordinal, which show which 
one of a series; as, first, second, third; multiplicative, which 
show repetition; as, twice, or two/old, thrice, or threefold, &c. 

3. When a numeral is used as a noun, the cardinal, like the pronomi- 
nal adjective, takes no article ; while the ordinal has the article prefixed ; 
as, " Two only were present ;" " The third was lost." 

62. Exercise. 

1. Apply cardinal numbers to the following nouns; change them to the 
plural, if necessary : — 

Peach, berry, box-, match, cork, shoe, penny, mouse, goose, woman, 
court-martial, tooth, brother-in-law, handfuls, stratum, index, stamen, 
cherub, phenomenon. 

2. Correct the following plurals, and apply to each any numeral greater 
than one or first : — 

Oxes, calfs, sheeps, deers, geeses, 9s, 7s, fs, cherubims, seraphims, 
s wines, vallies, loafs, chimnies, journies, study s,. commander-in-chiefs, 
heros, soloes, grottoes, ladys. 

63. Qualifying Adjectives. 
1. A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meaning of a 

Numerals. Classes of numerals. Qualifying adjectives. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 53 

noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, "a virtuous 
man;" "a running horse." To this class of adjectives belong 
the participles, which have the signification of the verb and the 
construction of the adjective. 

2. When the participle is placed before the noun which it modifies, it 
is called a participial adjective; as, "The rising sun." When it is placed 
after the noun, and is itself limited by other words, it is parsed as a 
participle ; as, " The sun rising in the east." 

3. When a qualifying adjective represents an object understood, either 
definite or indefinite, the article the must be placed before it; as, "The 
wise [persons] ; the benevolent [ones] ; the beautiful, the good, and the 
true." When the quality is used abstractly, the adjective undergoes a 
change in its termination ; as, Wise, yrisdom ; beautiful, beauty. 



64. Comparison of Adjectives. 

1. When different objects are compared with each other, the 
adjective expressing the quality by means of which they are com- 
pared, undergoes a change, called comparison. 

2. There are three degrees of comparison — the positive, com- 
parative, and superlative. 

3. The positive simply denotes a quality without comparison; 
as, righteous, pleasant. 

4. The comparative shows that one of two contrasted objects 
possesses a quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, " This 
tree is taller than that." 

5. The superlative shows that one of several objects referred 
to, possesses a quality in the highest degree, when compared with 
all the rest ; as, " That pine is the tallest tree in the grove." 

6. The comparative and superlative degrees are not used, as many 
suppose, to express increase or diminution of the quality denoted by 
the positive. 

7. The comparative degree implies that two objects are considered 
together with respect to a quality common to both, and it shows that 
one possesses more or less of that quality than the other. In either 
case, by itself alone, the quality would be put in the positive. Thus, 
A is large, and B is large; but A is larger than B, or A is the larger of 

Participial adjectives. Qualifying adjectives with noun understood. De- 

grocs of comparison, — positive — comparative — superlative. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the two. When the two compared objects possess the quality in equal 
degrees, the comparison is expressed by as — as thus ; A is as large as 13. 
8. The superlative degree implies that several (sometimes only two) 
objects are considered together with respect to a common quality, and 
that one, or one set exceeds all the others with which it is compared, in 
respect to that quality ; yet when spoken of without comparison, the 
quality would be in the positive. Thus, in a group of trees, one is tall, 
but when compared with the rest, it is the tallest of all. 



65. Formation of the Comparative and Superlative. 

1. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the 
positive; as, wise, wiser, wisest', hold, bolder, boldest. 

2. The comparative of most adjectives of more than one syl- 
lable is formed by prefixing more or less, and the superlative by 
prefixing most or least, to the positive; as ; industrious, more 
industrious, most industrious. 

3. The following adjectives are compared irregularly : Good, better, 
best; bad, worse, worst; ill, worse, tvorst ; little, less [or lesser~\, least; much, 
more, most; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest, farmost, farthermost ; 
near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, 
oldest or eldest. 

4. Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a quality 
in a lower degree than the positive ; as, bluish, approaching in color to 
blue. 

5. The meaning of the positive is also varied by the addition of such 
adverbs as somewhat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, exceedingly, 
&c. ; that of the comparative and superlative by such words as much, 
far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c. 

6. Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by adding 
most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out (contracted to ut), 
outer, further, hither, top, bottom ; as, upmost, iippermost, nethermost, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, pronominal adjec- 
tives, and such as refer to position, material, and form, are seldom, if 
ever, compared. 

8. Many adjectives denoting place or situation, are deficient in some 
of the degrees ; thus, further, furthermost or furthest, hither, hithcrmost, 

Comparatives and superlatives of monosyllables — of words of more than 
one syllable. Adjectives compared irregularly. Adjectives in ish, Tbe posi- 
tive varied by adverbs. Adjectives not compared. Deficient comparison. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 90 

nether, nethermost, under, undermost, want the positive. Northern, north- 
ernmost ; rear, rearmost, and others, want the comparative. 



66. Exercise. 

1. Tell tvhich of the following xoords are adjectives: — 

Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, brave, diligent, 
inkstand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough. 

2. Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are quali- 
fying :— 

Strong, twenty, faithful, green, this, first, an, old, former, yellow, 
every, such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, 
ripe, tough. 

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which of the 
comparative, and which of the superlative degree : — 

Braver, more acceptable, eldest, less useful, worst, better, most 
honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, good. 

4. Compare the following adjectives: — 

Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, just, diligent, beautiful, 
good, excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, warm, lovely. 

5. Apply limiting adjectives to five cojnmon nouns ; qualifying adjectives in 
the positive degree to five common nouns, of the masculine gender ; qualifying 
adjectives, in the comparative degree, to five common nouns in the feminine 
gender ; qualifying adjectives, in the superlative degree, to five nouns in the 
neuter gender, plural number. 

67. Models for Parsing. 

1. In parsing an adjective, — 

(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ? 

(2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why ? 

(3.) Compare it, and give the degree (if a qualifying adjective). 

(i.) Tell to what noun it belongs. 

(5.) Give the rule. 

2. " The faithful man will be rewarded."' 

Faithful is an adjective; it is used to limit or qualify a noun : qualifying, 
— it denotes quality; compared; positive faithful, comparative 
more faithful, superlative moat faithful ; in the positive degree, 
and belongs to man, according to Hule V. " An adjective or a 
participle must belong to some noun or pronoun." 

Models for parsing Adj stives. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. " Her house is larger than mine." 

Larger . is an adjective (why?); qualifying (why?); compared; positive 
large, comparative larger, superlative largest ; in the comparative 
degree ; it shows that one of two objects has a higher degree 
of the quality than the other ; and belongs to house, according 
to Rule V. 

4. " She is worthy of the highest praise." 

Worthy . is an adjective (why?) ; qualifying (why?) ; compared, worthy, 
worthier, worthiest ; positive degree, and belongs to she. Rule V. 

Highest . is an adjective (why?); qualifying (why ?) ; compared; positive 
high, comparative higher, superlative highest; in the superlative 
degree ; it shows the highest degree of the quality ; and belongs 
to praise, according to Rule V. 

The ... is a definite article (why ?), and as a limiting adjective it belongs 
to praise^ according to Rule V. 

5. " Three birds were killed." 

Three. . is a numeral adjective (why?); limiting (why?); it belongs to 
birds, according to Rule V. 

6. Give me this apple, and I will give you that." 

This . . is a pronominal adjective, singular number (59, 6), and limits apple, 
according to Rule V. 

That . . is a pronominal adjective ; singular number, and is used to limit 
the noun apple, understood ; — or it is used as a noun, instead 
of apple, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case, and is the object of the verb give, according to 
Rule VIII. 

7. " The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take 
it by force." 

Violent . is an adjective; it belongs to persons, understood ; or it is used 
as a noun, of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, 
nominative case, and is the subject of the proposition " the violent 
take," according to Rule I. 

3. Point out the adjectives in the following examples, and parse them 
according to the above forms : — 

The passionate are like men standing on their heads ; they see all 
things the wrong way. 

Models for parsing Adjectives. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 57 

There are two ways of arriving at the highest personal liberty ; one 
is to have few wants, and the other to have abundant means of satisfy- 
ing them. 

Shining characters are not always the most agreeable. 

Mental pleasures never cloy ; unlike those of the body, they arc 
increased by repetition. 

Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage. 
Minds innocent and quiet take 

That for a hermitage. 

9. Parse the nouns awe? adjectives in the following examples: — 
Rarely in public office, — he (Rufus Choate) was still a public man in 
. the largest sense : all were proud of him. The old honored him, the 
young loved him, and both old and young admired him. 

How sweetly come the holy psalms 

From saints and martyrs down, — 
The waving of triumphal palms 

Above the thorny crown ! 
The choral praise, the chanted prayers 

From harps by angels strung, 
The hunted Cameron's mountain airs, 

The hymns that Luther sung ! — Whitlier. 



PRONOUNS. 

68. Definitions and Distinctions. 

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as, 
"The farmer ploughs his field; he reaps his wheat, and gathers 
it into his barn." 

1. The mere fact that a pronoun is employed instead of a noun, is by 
no means indicative of its principal use. A noun is used primarily to 
denote an object, and incidentally, to represent its relation of person, 
number, gender, or case. A pronoun, on the contrary, is used, prima- 
rily, to represent some relation of an object ; and to do this, it must, of 
necessity, represent the object itself. 

2. These relations which the pronoun represents, may be. — 

(a.) That of the object to the speaker; and as the object may be either the 

A pronoun. Its primary use. The relation of an object (1.) to the speaker. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

speaker himself, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of, there may be three 
of these relations, called the Jirst, second, and third persons (39, 8. See also 
Introduction, Lesson XVIII.). Hence, to represent them, we have the pro- 
nouns /, thou, and he, she, it ; and hence, too, the name personal. 

(b.) That of the object to some modifying circumstance; as, "A fortress 
which stands on a hill is a conspicuous object." Here we employ the pronoun 
ichich, incidentally to denote the object fortress, but chiefly to show that the 
circumstance of its position is what renders it conspicuous. Hence the pro- 
nouns icho, ichich, that, and what ; and hence, too, the name relative. 

(c.) That of an unknown object to the speaker as an inquirer ; here, again, 
the object is incidentally represented by the pronoun (its name being unknown), 
and that for the special purpose of making it a subject of inquiry. Hence, 
we have Who ? Which? and What? and the name interrogative. 

3. The personal pronouns of the third person, and all the relative 
pronouns, are employed when an object is supposed to be not only 
known, but previously mentioned. The personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons, are used when the object is known (by its presence), but 
not (necessarily) previously mentioned. The interrogative pronouns are 
used when the object is neith.er"hnown, nor has been previously mentioned. 

4. The noun for which a pronoun stands is called the antecedent ; as, 
" The world in which they are placed, opens with all its wonders upon 
their eyes." The antecedent may be a phrase or an entire proposition ; 
as, " To believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be offen- 
sive to one of the noblest of men." " The servant opened the window which 
was strictly forbidden." The term antecedent, however, means something 
more than the noun which the pronoun represents ; it denotes the lead- 
ing term of a relation, and implies a subsequent term. Hence it is more 
especially used in case of a relative pronoun, which is employed to show 
a relation between its antecedent noun, and some following circumstance. 
(See 2. (b.) above). 

5. The object represented by the personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons, is always ' supposed to be present, and, consequently, 
the antecedent noun is seldom given ; that of the third person is usually 
expressed. Sometimes, however, a personal or an interrogative pronoun 
is employed without an antecedent, and so limited by a relative and its 
clause, as to give to the whole the effect of a single name ; as, " He who 
sways the minds of men by his eloque?ice," i. e., the orator, "exerts the 
highest human power." " Who, that marks the fire still sparkling in each 
eye, but would deem their bosoms burned anew ?" Sometimes the ante- 
cedent pronoun, in such cases, is omitted, or included in the relative ; 
as, " Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow," that is, 
they who. " Who steals my purse steals trash," that is, he who. 

(2.) To some circumstance, (3.) to an inquirer. The pronouns used for an 
object known, mentioned, &c. Antecedent expressed or implied. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS — PERSONAL. 59 

6. The pronoun stands not merely for a noun, but for a noun in its 
syntactical relation,- and also as restricted by modifying words ; as, 
''We saw the little deformed boy who watched at the gate, and pitied 
Aim," i. e., the little deformed boy who watched at the gate. 

7. The antecedent, as the term indicates, is something going before ; 
but as an interrogative pronoun inquires for an object as yet unknown, 
the antecedent cannot be a preceding noun. The pronoun, therefore, 
must agree in person, number, and gender, not necessarily with the 
noun in the answer — the subsequent, — but with a noun which the speaker 
conceived to be the name of the object (however erroneous it might be) 
when he uttered the question; as, " Who is there ?" Ans. "A horse." 
Here who evidently refers to person, being equivalent to what person. 
It would have been what, had the speaker known the character of the 
object inquired for. 



69. Classes of Pronouns. 

1. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; — -personal, relative , 
and interrogative. 

2. To these classes some grammarians add adjective pronouns. It is 
true that certain limiting adjectives may take the place of nouns; as, 
this, that, these, those, each, all, &c. So, any qualifying adjective, pre- 
ceded by an article, may stand for a noun in the same way ; as, The 
good, the wise, the prudent ; but a noun, in both cases, is properly under- 
stood. Hence they should be disposed of alike, that is, as adjectives 
used as nouns. 

3. To pronouns, like nouns, belong Person, Number, Gender, 
and Case. 

70. Personal Pronouns. 

1. A personal pronoun is used both to represent a noun, and to 
show whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 

2. /(plural we) is of the^rs^ person; thou (plural ye or you) 
is of the second person ; he, she, and it (plural they) are of the 
third person, masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. 

3. The personal pronouns of the first and second person represent the 
speaker or the hearer. The gender is supposed to be known, and is not 

Pronouns classified. Properties of pronouns. Personal pronouns — 1st, 2d, 
3d persons. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indicated by the form of the pronoun, while that of the third person is 
represented by one of the forms, he, she, or it. 

4. It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verbs descrip- 
tive of the weather; as, " It rains." "It thunders." It is used as an 
expletive, (1.) as the object of a verb; as, "Come and trip it as you 
go;" (2.) to introduce a sentence whose subject is placed after the pre- 
dicate. "It is pleasant to see the sun." "It has been ascertained, that 
water is composed of oxygen and hydro gen." It is used as subject to repre- 
sent a noun or pronoun as attribute, of any number, gender, or person ;' 
as, "It is /." "It is they." "It is James." "It is she." 

5. Formerly, thou was used in addressing a single individual, and a 
corresponding form of the verb was used; as, "Thou singest;" but 
gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thou, except in 
the solemn style, is now wholly discontinued. You, therefore, is both 
singular and plural in its application, but the verb does not change its 
form; it invariably takes the plural form; as, "You (meaning one) 
write" not writest. 

6. The compound personal pronouns are, first person, myself 
(plural ourselves) ; second person, thyself '(plural yourselves)) third 
person {masculine) himself (feminine) herself (neuter) itself 
(plural themselves). 

7. The compound personal pronouns are seldom, if ever, used as the 
subject of a proposition, though they may be used in apposition with it ; 
as, " He himself knows not whereof he affirms." When used as the object 
of a transitive verb, they are called reflexive, because the act of the agent 
falls back upon himself; as, "The boy struck himself." 

71. Exercise. 

1. Substitute the nouns and their modifying words for the pronouns in the 
following sentences : — 

At this time, the commander of the American forces and his army 
took post at Harlem ; he now sought to ascertain the state of his enemy's 
forces on Long Island. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered his services ; 
he entered the British army in disguise. On his return, he was appre- 
hended and sent to the cruel Marshal Cunningham, by whom he was 
ordered to execution without a trial. 

Edward carelessly lost his books on his way to school ; he tried to 
excuse himself to his teacher for his deficiency in his lessons, but she 
required him to prepare them after school, and recite them to her. 

Uses of "it" — of "thou." Compound personal pronouna. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS — DECLENSION. 

72. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
1. The personal pronouns are thus declined : — 



61 





First person. 






Sing. 




Plu. 


Nom. 


I, 




We, 


Pos. 


My or mine, 


Our or ours, 


Obj. 


Me, 




Us. 




Second Person. 






Sing. 




Plu. 


Nom. 


Thou, 




Ye or you, 


Pos. 


Thy or thine, 


Your or yours 


Obj. 


Thee, 




You. 




Third Person. 


Masculine. 






Sing. 




Plu. 


Nom. 


He, 




They, 


Pos. 


His, 




Their or theirg, 


Obj. 


Him, 




Them. 




Third Person. 


Feminine. 






Sing. 




Plu. 


Nom. 


She, 




They, 


Pos. 


Her or hers, 


Their or theirs, 


Obj. 


Her, 




Them. 



Third Person. Neuter. 

Sing. Plu. 

Nom. It, They, 

Pos. Its, Their or theirs, 

Obj. It, Them. 



Nom. 
Pos. 
Obj. 



First Person. 



Myself, 



Myself, 



Plu. 
Ourselves 



Ourselves 



Declension of i, tnor, nr:, sin:, it. Mysklf. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Person. 

Sing. Flu. 

Norn. Thyself, Yourselves, 



Pos. 



Thyself, Yourselves. 







Third Person. 






Sing. 






Piu. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neul. 




Nom. 


Himself, 


Herself, 


Itself, 


Themselves. 


Pos. 
Obj. 










Himself, 


Herself, 


Itself, 


Themselves 



2. Of the possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used when the 
noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs (in modern 
style), when it is understood, and the latter must be changed to the 
former whenever the noun is supplied. "That book is yours; this is 
mme." " That book is your book ; this is my book." 

3. When mine, thine, &c, are used as in the above example, they seem 
to perform a double office ; first, to represent the speaker, hearer, or 
person spoken of, as a possessor ; and, secondly, like other limiting or 
qualifying words, when the noun is understood, to represent or stand 
for that noun, not as a pronoun does, but as an adjective (69, 2). Thus we 
say, " This [book] is an arithmetic ; that [book] is a geography." " The 
violent [persons] take it by force." " Mine [my task] was an easy task." 
Properly, neither of the above words is a noun. The first three are 
adjectives used to limit the noun understood, which follows them, and 
the last a personal pronoun in the possessive case, used to limit the 
noun task, understood. If it is proper to say that this, that, or violent 
are used as nouns, it is equally so of the word mine, not in its pronomi- 
nal, but in its adjective office. It is, then, strictly, a pronoun in the 
possessive, governed by some noun understood ; but may, like an adjec- 
tive, be parsed as that noun, in the nominative or the objective case. 

73. Exercise. 

1. In parsing a pronoun, — 

(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ? 
(2.) Tell what kind of pronoun. Why ? 
(3.) Tell what its antecedent is. Why? 
(4.) Decline it. 
(5.) Give the person, number, gender. Why? 

Declension of thyself. Himself, &c. The possessives my, thy, mine, 
thine. &c. 



ETYM0L03Y — PRONOUNS. 63 

(6.) Rule for person, number, gender. Why? 
(7.) Case and construction. 
(8.) Rule for construction. 

Note. — In parsing, let the pupil follow this order, and as soon as possible, 
without any question from the teacher. The pronoun is parsed very much 
like the noun. 

2. Study the following models for parsing : — 
"David brought his book, and laid it on the table." 

His . is a pronoun ; it takes the place of a noun; personal; it is used 
both to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, 
second, or third person ; it refers to David's for its antecedent ; 
(singular, nominative he, possessive his, objective him; plural, 
nominative they, possessive their or theirs, objective them;) it is of 
the third person, singular number, masculine gender, because its ante- 
cedent is ; (Rule III. : "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent 
in gender, number, and person ;) possessive case, and is used to limit 
book, by denoting possession, according to Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 

It . . is & pronoun (why?) ; personal (why?) ; it has book for its antece- 
dent ; (decline it) ; it is of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, because its antecedent book is (Rule III.), objective case, and 
is the object of laid: Rule VIII. (Repeat the rule.) 

"The messenger himself revealed the treachery." 
Himself . is a pronoun (why?); compound, composed of him and self; it 
has messenger for its antecedent; third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, because its antecedent is (Rule III.), nomina- 
tive case, and used to identify or explain messenger, according 
to Rule VI. 

3. Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentences: 

Can it be that America, under such circumstances, can betray her- 
self! that she is to be added to the catalogue of republics, the inscrip- 
tion upon whose ruins is, "They were, but they are not!" Forbid it, 
my countrymen ! forbid it, heaven ! — Story. 

It is a noble faculty of our nature which enables us to connect our 
thoughts, our sympathies, and our happiness, with what is distant in 
place or time. — Webster. 

His praise, ye winds that from five quarters blow. 

Breathe soft or loud ; and wave your tops, ye pines. — .Milton. 

Love took up the glass of Time, and turned it in his glowing hands, 
Every moment, lightly shaken, ran itself in golden Bands. — Tennyson. 

Models for parsing pronouns. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Give the class, person, number, gender {when -it can be determined by 
the form), and case of the following pronouns : — 

1. he, his, hers, mine, you, thou, they, them, us, we, myself, himself, 
they, herself, me, themselves, ourselves, my, thee, your, thine, herself, 
yourselves. 

74. Relative Pronouns. 

1. A relative pronoun is used both to represent a preceding 
noun or pronoun, called the antecedent, and to connect with it a 
dependent proposition; as, " Those who wish for favors must 
assist others." 

2. The relative pronoun, when used only as such, follows the antece- 
dent ; as, "All that I have is yours;" when used both as a limiting 
adjective and a pronoun, it always precedes it; as, "I will give you 
what money I have." 

3. The following distinctions will show the difference between a rela- 
tive and a personal pronoun : — 

(a.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either previously 
mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the personal pronouns 
refer always to an object known, and in the third person, to an object pre- 
viously mentioned, but in the first and second persons, to an object not pre- 
viously mentioned. 

(b.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical per- 
son; /for the first, thou or yon for the second, and he, she, or it for the third. 
The relative pronouns do not change their form to represent person. 

(c.) The essential difference is seen in the relations which they denote (see 
, 68, 2), and in their use in construction. The personal pronoun may repre- 
sent the subject of an independent sentence; the relative never; as, "He is 
present." " Which is important." The first is a complete sentence; the 
second needs some word, as measure (which is important), on which it may 
depend. 

75. Simple Relatives. 

1. The simple relatives are who, which, that, and what. 

2. Who is used to represent persons; which and what to repre- 
sent things ; and that to represent both persons and things. 

3. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is not only the word for 
which the pronoun stands, but is the leading or antecedent term of a 
relation, of which the clause introduced by the relative is the subsequent 

Relative Pronoun. The relative used as an adjective. Difference between 
the relative and personal pronoun. Simple relatives. "Who," "which," 
. " that," and " what." 



ETYMOLOGY — SIMPLE RELATIVES. 65 

term ; it is that on which the relative clause depends, and is either a 
definite or an indefinite object. 

4. Who, which, and that usually refer to a definite antecedent ; as, 
" The man who came." " The horse which died." " The tree that fell." 
In the sentence, "Who steals my purse steals trash," who refers to an 
indefinite antecedent. What may refer either to a definite or an indefi- 
nite antecedent; as, "I gave him what money he wanted" (definite). 
" I gave him what [things] he wanted" (indefinite). When the ante- 
cedent is indefinite, the relative stands alone. 

5. What is both a relative pronoun and a limiting adjective, and is 
equivalent to that or those, zchich, and consequently has a double con- 
struction. When the antecedent is expressed, what should be parsed 
(1.) as an adjective; (2.) as a relative pronoun; as, "He gave me what 
books I wanted." When the antecedent is omitted, the indefinite noun 
"things" may be supplied, making this case the same as above; or, it 
may be taken (1.) as an adjective in the sense of that or those, but used 
as a noun (69, 2); it is then the antecedent to itself used (2.) as a 
relative in the sense of which; as, "He gave me what I wanted," that 
is, "He gave me that (ant.) which (rel.) I wanted." 

6. The word that is a relative only when who or which can be substi- 
tuted for it; as, "He that [who) getteth wisdom loveth his own soul." 
"What private grief they have, alas! I know not, that (which) made 
them do it." It is a pronominal adjective when it limits a noun expressed 
or understood ; as, " That book. It is a subordinate conjunction when 
it joins a dependent clause to some part of a principal; as, "I know 
that my Redeemer liveth." 

7. What is a relative (1.) when it can be changed into that which; as, 
"It is what (that which) I wanted ;" (2.) when it both limits and relates 
to a noun ; as, " What ore was found, was very poor" = That ore which was 
found, &c. It is an interrogative pronoun, when used alone (belonging 
to an indefinite object) to ask a question; as, " What [things] do you 
want?" It is an interrogative adjective when used to limit a noun (a 
definite object), and also to ask a question; as, " IFhat excuse does ho 
render ?" It is an interjection when it denotes an exclamation ; as, 
"What! have you come?" It is an adverb when it is equivalent to 
partly ; as, " The year before, he had so used the matter, that what by 
force, ichat by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty 
castles." 

8. When that is used as the object of a preposition, ilie latter is 
always placed at the end of a clause; and that iim<t be changed to whom 
or which whenever the preposition precedes; as, "It was James thai I 
depended upon" = upon whom I depended. 

The antecedent — definite and indefinite. " What" Different uses of 
" that" — of '• what." •• That" as object of a preposition. 
6* E 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. By an ellipsis of the relative, as, after such, many, and same, seems 
to take its place, and may be regarded as a relative, though, properly 
speaking, it is never a relative; as, "The Lord added to the church 
daily, such as [were those who] should be saved." 

78. Compound Eelatives. 

1. The compound relatives are whoso, whoever, ichosoever, 
whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

2. These are formed from the simple relatives by adding the adverbs 
ever and soever. What, on account of its double construction (75, 5), has 
been erroneously regarded as a compound pronoun. 

3. Whoever and whosoever refer to some indefinite antecedent, as he, 
person, any one, and are equivalent to any one who; as, " Whoever 
hopes a faultless piece to see/' In all other respects they are parsed 
like who, whose, ichom. Whichever and whichsoever refer to a definite 
object, to which they belong as adjectives; as, 'Whichever way you 
take will lead to the city.' 5 They are equivalent to any — which. What- 
ever and whatsoever belong, as adjectives, either to a definite or an inde- 
finite object, and relate, as pronouns, to the same (75, 5) ; as, " We are 
interested in whatever occupation you follow." •• Whatsoever is more 
than these cometh of evil." They are equivalent to that — which, or any 
thing — which. 

4. The relative and interrogative pronouns are thus declined : — 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

Nom. "Who, Which, 

Pos. Whose, Whose, 

Obj. Whom, Which. 

That and ivhat have no variation. Whoever and whosoever are de- 
clined like who. 

77. Exercise — Models for Parsing. 

1. " The man who is faithfully attached to religion will be upright." 
Who . . is a relative pronoun. (Why ?) 

(1.) As a pronoun it has man for its antecedent; nominative 
tvho, possessive whose, objective whom ; plural the same ; third 
person, singular number, masculine gender, because its antece- 
dent is (Rule III. : Repeat it), nominative case, and is used as 
the subject of the proposition, "who is attached." (Rule* I. 
Repeat it.) 

"As" after "such," "many," and "same." Compound relatives. Their 
formation. "Whoever," "Whosoever," &c. Declension of the relatives. 



ETYMOLOGY — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. hi 

(2.) As a relative or connective it joins the subordinate pro- 
position, "who is faithfully attached to religion," to the ante- 
cedent man. Rule XV. (Repeat it.) 

2. "Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence." 
W-iose . is a relative pronoun. (Why ? ) 

(1.) As a pronoun it has patriotism for its antecedent ; nomi- 
native which, &c. ; third person, singular number, neuter gender 
(Rule III. : Repeat it) ; possessive case, and is used to limit 
root, by denoting possession: Rule VII. (Repeat it). 

(2.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordinate 
proposition "whose root is benevolence," to the antecedent 
patriotism: Rule XV. (Repeat it.) 

3. " Compassion is an emotion of which we should never be ashamed." 
Which . is a relative pronoun. (Why ?) 

(1.) As a pronoun it represents emotion as its antecedent (de- 
cline and give person, number, gender; Rule III.) ; objective 
case, and is used as the object of the preposition of: Rule XIV. 
(Repeat it.) 

(2.) As a relative or connective, it joins the subordinate pro- 
position, "of which we should never be ashamed," to the ante- 
cedent emotion: Rule XV. 

4. " Here is the sofa that he sat upon." 

That . . is a relative pronoun. (Why ?) 

(1.) As a pronoun it has sofa for its antecedent (decline, and 
give person, number, gender: Rule III.) ; objective case, and 
used as the object of the preposition upon. Rule XIV. (See 
75, 8.) 

(2.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordinate 
proposition, "that he sat upon," to the antecedent sofa. 
Rule XV. 



5. "I have ascertained what lesson we must 1 



earn. 



What., is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective; (1.) As an 
adjective, it belongs to lesson, according to Rule V. 

(2.) As a pronoun, it represents lesson for its antecedent, and 
is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, accord- 
ing to Rule III., objective case, and is the object of must learn, 
according to Rule VIII. 

(3.) As a relative or connective, it joins the subordinate 
proposition, " what we must learn," to the antecedent 
Rule XV. 

Models fur parsingi 



OS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. " I know what will be done." 

What . . is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective. 

(1.) As an adjective, it belongs to some noun, as thing (what 
thing), understood, and should be parsed as above (75, 5), or 
it may be used as a noun of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, objective case, and the object of know. Rule Vlll. 

(2.) As a pronoun, it relates to thing understood, or to what 
(used as the noun thing) for its antecedent, and is of the third 
person, singular number, neuter gender (R,ule III.), nomina- 
tive case, and the subject of will be done. Rule I. 

(3.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordinate 
proposition, "what will be done," to thing or to what, used as 
a noun. Rule XV. 

7. "He has lost ivhatever fortune he had." 

Parse "whatever" according to the first model (5.) for "what." 

8. " Whoever fails must try again." 

Supply the antecedent, (7 '6, 8) and parse as i?i Model 1. 

9. Parse the relatives in the following examples : — 

A dauntless soul erect who smiles on death. — Thomson. 

Call imperfection what thou fanciest such. — Pope. 

Whoever seeks the good of others, will himself be blest. 

Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper. 
But that which gave the brightest lustre not only to the eloquence of 
Chatham, but to his character, was his loftiness and nobleness of soul. 
He loved fame, but it was the fame that follows, not the fame that is 
run after; not the fame that is gained by the little acts that bring for- 
ward little men, but the fame that a minister will and must wring from 
the very people whose prejudices he despises, and whose passions he 
controls. — JIahon. 

For the structure that we raise 

Time is with materials filled : 
Our to-days and yesterdays 

Are the blocks with which we build. — Longfellow. 

9. Tell xohat part of speech "that" is in the following examples (74, G): 
Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. 
That is the same man that we met before. 
I do not deny that you may be right. 
I will send the articles that you asked for. 
I hope that that boy that stole that purse will be punished. 
It is not from my lips that that strain of eloquence is this day to 
flow. — Webster. 

Models for parsing. 



ETYMOLOGY — INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 69 

78. Interrogative Pronouns. 

1. An interrogative pronoun is used both to represent a noun, 
and to ask a question ; as ; " Who art thou, Lord ?" 
- 2. The interrogatives are iclio, used to inquire for persons ; 
ivhich, for persons and things ; and what (usually) for things ; as, 
u Who gave thee that authority ?" u Which house does he live 
in V " What have I to do with thee ?." 

3. When a definite object is inquired for, what and which are interroga- 
tive adjectives used to limit the name of the object inquired for ; as, 
"What books do you want ?" " Which road shall we take ?" When an 
indefinite object is inquired for, the interrogative takes its place, or 
belongs to it, understood (59, 3) ; as, "What (thing) do you want?" 

4. When an interrogative sentence is quoted, and incorporated into 
another sentence, it loses much of its interrogative character ; the inter- 
rogative pronoun becomes a connective, and as the incorporated clause 
is an unanswered question, the pronoun refers to some person or thing 
both unknown and unmentioned. It may therefore be called an indefinite 
interrogative pronoun ; as, "Who is concealed in the garden?" The 
name has not been mentioned, and although he may be a familiar friend, 
yet as the concealed one, he is unknown. The answer, therefore, must 
be, "I do not know who is concealed in the garden." Who is here (1.) 
an indefinite interrogative pronoun, third person, singular number (shown 
by the verb), masculine gender, nominative case, &c. ; and (2.) a subor- 
dinate connective, joining the subordinate proposition, "who is con- 
cealed in the garden," to know. Rule XV. Compare this with "I do 
not know him who is concealed in the garden." Here who should be 
parsed as a relative pronoun, having Mm for its antecedent. 

5. Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in asking 
questions; as, Why? Where? When? Bow? 

79. Exercise. 

1. Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following examples: — 
Who has learned his lesson? Which seat do you prefer? What have 

you found in the garden? For what are you punished ? Whose BChool 
do you attend? Who went with you ? Whom do you follow ? Which 
way has she gone ? 

2. Tell which of the above examples are pronouns, and which interroga- 
tive adjectives. [See 78, 3). 

Interrogative pronouns— "who," "which," and "what" Definite and 
indefinito interrogative pronouns. Interrogative ad\ orbs. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Tell which of the following pronouns are relative, which interrogative : — 
He whose image thou art. From what fountain flowed their light? 

What title dost thou bear ? Whose genius had angelic wings. "What 
readiest way would bring me to the place ? "Who found the flower ? 
I am he whom ye seek. He found the book for which I sent him. Of 
whom do you speak ? That which was lost is found. 

4. Models for parsing interrogates : — 

" Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ?" 
Who . is a, pronoun (why 9 ) . interrogative (why?) ; its antecedent (sub- 
sequent) is not expressed ; nominative who, possessive whose, 
objective whom; plural, the same, third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, because its antecedent (subsequent, no one im- 
plied) is (Rule III. : Repeat it), nominative case, and used as the 
subject of the proposition, " who shall separate." Rule I. (Re- 
peat it.) 

" Whose books have you found?" 
Whose is an interrogative pronoun; nominative tvho, &c. (person, number, 
and gender depending upon the object conceived of as the answer), 
possessive case, and is used to limit books by denoting possession. 
Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 

" What seek ye?" 
What is an interrogative pronoun ; indeclinable; third person (number and 
gender depending upon the object conceived of as the answer), 
objective case, and used as the object of the verb " seek." Rule 
VIII. (Repeat it.) 

"What lesson shall we learn?" 
What is Si pronominal adjective, used interrogatively, and belongs to lesson, 
for which it inquires. Rule V. 

"I know not who is there." 
Who . is an (1.) indefinite interrogative pronoun, having properly no ante- 
cedent, but referring to some unknown person previously in- 
quired for, third person, singular number (shown by the verb), 
masculine gender, (47, 6), &c. ; and (2.) a subordinate con- 
nective, joining the subordinate proposition, ''who is there," to 
know. Rule XV. 

5. Parse the NOUNS, adjectives, and pronouns, in the following ex- 

implcs : — 
A great mistake, which is too common, especially among those who 

Models for parsing. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 71 

have experienced many trials and difficulties in life, is, that happiness 
is to be found in rest. But, as has been pointedly remarked, that man 
is most restless, who is most at rest. — Buckminster. 

Mark but my fall, and that that ruined me. 
Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition ! 
By that sin fell the angels. — Shakspeare. 

Motionless torrents ! silent cataracts ! 
Who made you glorious as the gates of heaven 
Beneath the keen full moon ? Who bade the sun 
Clothe you with rainbows ? — Coleridge. 

Ay ! Heaven had set one living man 

Beyond the pedant's tether — 
His virtues, frailties, He will scan, 

Who weighs them all together ! 

I fling my pebble on the cairn, 

Of him though dead, undying — 
Sweet Nature's nursling, bonniest bairn, 

Beneath her daisies lying. — Holmes. 



VERBS. 
80. Definitions and Distinctions. 

1. A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, 
be, read, sleep, is loved. 

2. The being, action, or state may be affirmed, assumed, or used ab- 
stractly ; as, "George runs." "George running." "To run." When 
an affirmation is made, the verb is either the predicate or copula of the 
proposition, and is said to be finite; when the action of the verb is 
assumed, it takes the construction of the adjective, is joined to the subject, 
and is called a participle ; when it is used abstractly, it is separated 
from the subject, and being unlimited by its person or number, it is said 
to be infinitive [unlimited). 

3. Affirm, as here used, includes an absolute declaration; as, "Mary 
learns;" — a conditional statement ; as, " [f Mary learns :'* — an interroga- 
tion; as, " Does Mary learn ?" — a petition; as, --May Mary learn;" — a 
command; as, "Mary, learn.'' 

Verbs. Different uses of the being, action, or state. Meaning of tt affirm." 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Strictly speaking, a word expressing being, action, &c, is a verb 
only when it has also the power to affirm. This would exclude the par- 
ticiple and the infinitive, and make them both participles, as they really 
are. They are then forms derived from the verb ; but as these are com- 
monly included with the verb, the foregoing definition is adopted. 

5. The abstract or substantive verb is the pure verb Be, called the 
copula, having no other power or value than to assert some attribute of 
a noun. When the attribute is a quality, this verb must always be used ; 
as, "Lead is heavy;" but when the attribute is an action, it may blend 
with the verb be, and then both become one word ; as, " The sun is 
rismg." "The sun rises." The combined form then takes the name of 
verb, and undergoes inflections to represent voice, mode, tense, number, 
and person ; in all other cases, the verb to be undergoes these variations. 
These verbs are called attributive, because to the pure verb they join an 
attribute. 

6. The verb to be is attributive, whenever it is used to assert existence ; 
as, "There was a man sent from God." When thus used, the verb is 
commonly followed by its subject, and preceded by the expletive " there," 
which serves no other purpose than to introduce the sentence, and indi- 
cate this peculiarity of the verb. ' 

7. Every finite verb represents some person or thing, as acting or 
existing in a certain state, and that which represents this person or thing 
is called the subject; as, " Frank plays." " She sleeps. " 



81. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs and their subjects in the following examples: — 
The clouds vanish. The vapor rises. The plant lives. Flowers die. 

Children sing. They stand. Can you see ? Here they are ! The ice 
melts. 

2. Write appropriate verbs for the following nouns as subjects: — 

Samuel, the pen, the book, flowers, we, oceans, moon, the earth, forests, 
the king, Victoria. 

3. Write appropriate nouns, as subjects for the following verbs: — 
Rules, is, thinks, hopes, learns, shine, grow, dig, revolve, sits, fears, 

blossom, arise, sink. 

4. Point out the verbs on page — in your Reader, and tell the sxibjects. 
Note. Let the Teacher assign this lesson. 

The substantive verb "to be." The verb "to be" attributive. The subject 
of the verb. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. i 3 

82. Verbs classified by their use. 

1. Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitive and 
intransitive. 

2. A transitive verb requires the addition of an object to com- 
plete its meaning ; as, " The servant opened the door." 

3. An intransitive verb does not require the addition of an 
object to complete its meaning; as, " The sun rises." "The 
horse runs." 

4. Verbs may be divided, on account of their relation to the subject, 
into, — 

(a.) The abstract or substantive verb Be, which represents no attribute of 
the subject whatever, but serves as a copula, or link, to bind the attribute to 
the subject. 

(b.) Attributive or mixed verbs, in which an attribute denoting an action or 
state of the subject is blended with the copula; as, runs = is running; is 
being the copula, and running the attribute. 

5. Attributive verbs, including also the copula to be, have been divided, 
with reference to the subject, into those which represent the subject in 
an active state (active verbs) ; those which represent it in a passive state, 
that is, in such a state as to receive or suffer an action (passive verbs) ; 
and those which represent the subject in neither of these states (neuter 
verbs) ; that is, a state in which it neither acts nor receives the effect 
of an action. But this distinction has little to do with the construction 
of language. It is the relation of the verb to a succeeding term, the 
object, that renders a classification important. 

Remark. — The old division is retained in the dictionaries, and the learner 
should understand, in consulting a dictionary, that v. a. after a verb is equiva- 
lent to transitive, v. n. to intransitive. Thus, run, fly, tcalk, though they 
represent the subject in a very active state, are marked v. n. = verb neuter. 

6. The terms transitive and intransitive have been generally adopted 
by recent grammarians, as best suited to the purposes of construction. 
Although the idea of an act originating in an agent, and " passing over" 
to an object, seems inapplicable to such verbs as have, possess, receive, 
acquire, and many others, still the terms, as defined above, are liable to 
little or no objection. 

7. The subdivision of verbs into active-transitive and active-intransitive, 
is not only needless, but partial in its application. The distill 
made to apply exclusively to active verbs ; whereas it may apply as well 
to neuter as to active verbs. In the sentence, " The sen 

father," no one will maintain that resembles is any more an Active verb 
than sleeps. Yet it is transitive, and, to be consistent, we ought to liavo 

Transitive and intransitive verbs. Relation of the verb to the subject. 
Activc-transitivo aud active-intransitive verbs. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

neuter-transitive and neuter-intransitive. By omitting the words active and 
neuter altogether, we have a practical division, and one of universal 
application. 

8. The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an answer 
to the question What? with the verb ; as, "The ox eats" ( What?) hay, 
grass, oats, corn, &c. To determine whether a verb is transitive or in- 
transitive, we have only to use this test: ask with it the question What? 
or Whom ? and if the sense requires that a noun or pronoun, meaning 
a different thing from the subject, should be added, it is transitive ; 
otherwise it is intransitive. 

9. When the noun or pronoun thus added means the same person or 
thing as the subject, it is not the object, but is a predicate-nominative, 
and the verb is either intransitive, or transitive in the passive voice. 
All such verbs perform the office of the copula, and are, hence, called 
copulative verbs. These are be {the simple copula), become, seem, appear, 
stand, walk, and other verbs of position, motion, and condition ; the pas- 
sive verbs — is called, is named, is styled, is appointed, is constituted, is elected, 
is chosen, is made, is esteemed, is reckoned, and others. 

10. A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily implies three terms 
— a subject or agent, & predicate, and an object. When the verb assumes 
the passive form, the foregoing order is inverted, and we have an object, 
& predicate, and a subject or agent; as, "The locusts (agent = sub.) de- 
voured (pred.) the grass" (obj.) =The grass (obj. z=sub.) was devoured 
(pred.) by the locusts (agent). An intransitive verb requires but two 
terms, a subject and predicate, and as it cannot assume the passive form 
(except by the aid of a preposition) (77, 9), the terms can undergo no 
such change as above. 

11. Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransitive in 
another. When the object is not necessarily implied, it is better to con- 
sider such verbs intransitive, and not transitive, because an object may 
be supplied; as, "She sings beautifully" (intransitive). "She sings 
soprano" (transitive). 

12. Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive when used 
with a causative signification; as, "The train usually runs at the rate 
of twenty-five miles an hour ; but they ran a train (caused it run) at the 
rate of forty." Some verbs become transitive when they take an object 
after them of a kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race, played a game." 

83. Exercise. 

1. Tell which of the following verbs are transitive, which intransitive : — 
Anna loves her mother. The golden gates open. The moon silvers 

Object of transitive verbs. The predicate-nominative. Subject, predicate, 
and object. The same verb sometimes transitive, and sometimes intransitive. 
Causative verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS. /0 

the distant bills. Mary has found her ring. Eleanor writes poetry. 
The snow melts. The icy fetters break. The innocent lamb dies. The 
child plays. The fragrant flowers bloom. She received a letter. Does 
Paul live there ? 

2. Write an appropriate subject and object for each of the following verbs: — 
Rings, learn, find, hide, fears, remembers, inflicts, receives, lift, hears, 

renews, reviews, write. 

Model. The sexton rings the bell. 

3. Point out the transitive and intransitive verbs in the following examples; 
also the subject of each verb,-and the object, if it has one: — 

spare me, that I may recover strength before I go hence, and be 
no more. 

Awake ! arise ! or be for ever fallen ! 

Hannibal passed through Gaul, crossed the Alps, came down into 
Italy, and defeated several Roman generals ; but he could not conquer 
the country, nor take the city of Rome. 

Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his. 

Hands of angels hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the 
heavens ; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn. 
The blue sky now turned more softly gray ; the great watch-stars shut 
up their holy eyes, the east began to kindle, and soon the whole celestial 
concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning light. — Everett. 

The shadow of departed hours 
Hangs dim upon thine early flowers, 
Even in thy sunshine, seems to brood 
Something too deep for solitude. — Hemans. 

84. Verbs classified by their form. 

1. Verbs are divided, according to their form, into regular 
and irregular. 

2. A regular verb is one which forms its past tense, and past 
participle, by adding ed (25, 3) to the present tense j as, love, 
Ibrved, \o\cd; gain, gainer/, gained. 

3. An irregular verb is one which docs not form its past tense 
and past participle by the addition of ed to the present tens.'; 
as, see, saw, seen ; write, wrote, written. 

4. A defective verb is one in which, some of the parts are want- 
ing; as, may, might (participle wanting). 

Regular and irregular verbs. Defective verbs. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in the conju- 
gation of other verbs ; as, have, in have loved. 

6. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is 
asserted independently of any particular subject; as ; " It rains." 
il It snows." 

85. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs in the following examples; tell whether they are 
regular or irregular ; transitive or intransitive. (See list of irregular verbs). 

Where shall a man go to avoid pain and sickness ? 
JS thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink. 

All that the Father giveth me, shall come to me. 

Canst' thou bind the sweet influences of the Pleiades ? or loose the 
bands of Orion ? 

I impeach him (Warren Hastings) in the name of the .English nation, 
whose ancient honor he has sullied. — Burke. 

Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam, 
Survey our empire, and behold our home. — Byron. 

2. Write five sentences containing regular transitive, and five containing 
irregular transitive verbs. Draw a line under the verb and its object. 



REG. TRANSITIVE. IRREG. TRANSITIVE. 

Mr. Brown has incurred a great debt. The child led the blind man. 

3. In the same way write five sentences containing regular intransitive- 
and five containing irregular intransitive verbs. 



86. Properties of Verbs. 
To verbs belong voice, mode, tense, number, and person. 

87. Voice. 

1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whe- 
ther the subject acts or is acted upon. 

2. There are two voices — the active and the passive. 

Auxiliary verbs. Impersonal verbs. Voice, mode, tense, number, and 
person of verbs. Active and passive voice. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — VOICE. 77 

3. Tlio active voice represents the subject as acting ; as ; "John 
struck William." 

Here John is the subject, and John performs the act. 

4. The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon; as, 
a William was struck by John." 

Here William is the subject, but he does not act: he only receives the 
act, or is acted upon ; that is, is passive, which means suffering or receiving 
an act, the subject or receiver, meanwhile, being in an inactive state. 

5. Any sentence, having for its predicate a transitive verb, may be 
changed or transformed by changing the active to the passive voice, or 
the passive to the active. The same meaning, or nearly the same, will 
be expressed in either case. 

6. A transitive verb necessarily implies the presence of an active and 
a passive person or thing. The one performs the act, the other receives 
or suffers it. If the active one is made the subject of the sentence, the 
verb is said to be in the active voice; if the passive one is made the 
subject, the verb is said to be in the passive voice ; as, " The locusts de- 
voured (active) the grass." " The grass was devoured (passive) by the 
locusts." Strictly speaking, the ideas of active and passive, though 
manifesting themselves in the form of the verb, are not attributes of the 
verb, but of the persons or things connected with it, just as comparison, 
though exhibiting itself in the form of the adjective, is really the bring- 
ing together of two or more objects, and not qualities. 

7. The following are all the possible cases which can occur : — 

(a.) One and the same person or thing may represent both relations, the 
active and the passive ; as, " lie struck himself." " She struck herself." "It 
destroyed itself." " You struck yourself." "/struck myself." See Per- 
sonal Pronoun, (70, 7). 

(h.) Two different persons or things maybe employed to represent theso 
relations. 

(1.) One may be simply active, and the other simply passive; as, 
" George struck William" =Willia>n was struck by George. 

(2.) Each may be, at the same time, both active and passive; as, 
" Thnj strtfek each other"= They struck, each [struck] the other. (See 
208, 9). 

(c.) Three different persons or things may ho employed } ono active, and 
two passive. 

(1.) One may act, another suffers the a<-t, while the third stands as 
that to which the act is tending; as, " He (act) gave me (lending to) a 

Change of active to passive voice. Active and passive object or party. 
Different relations of these parties. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

booJc" (pass.). u He told me his hiatory"=Tl\& history was told me by 
At'?rc = / was told his history by him. 

(2.) One acts, another is acted upon, and thereby transformed or 
made into the third (212, 9) ; as, " They made him an officer" =\\q was 
made an officer by them= An officer was made of him by them. In this 
case there are but two different persons or things. The second and third 
denote the same individual. 

8. When the agent is unknown, or when we wish to conceal it, by 
drawing attention only to the act and the object affected by it, we use 
the passive voice ; as, " Gold is found (by some one unknown, or known, 
but not mentioned) in California." But if we wish to make the agent 
prominent, we use the active voice ; as, " Moses conducted the Israelites 
out of Egypt." 

9. Some intransitive verbs, when accompanied by the preposition fol- 
lowing, admit of a passive form; as, "They laughed at him"=He was 
laughed at. So, when a verb takes two objects, one direct and the other 
indirect, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the verb in the pas- 
sive voice (212, 13) ; as, " I told him a story" = He was told a story. 

10. Certain intransitive verbs, as come, arrive, fall, rise, &c, admit of 
a passive form, yet with an intransitive signification, as will be seen by 
observing that the agent or actor, not the object, is the subject of the 
sentence in either form; as, "Babylon is fallen" (has fallen). This 
idiom is less common now than formerly, and may be regarded as an 
imitation of the French or German forms of similar verbs. 

88. Exercise. 

1. Tell which of the following verbs are in the active voice, which in the 



The moon gives a pleasant light. The book was written by my father. 
The song of the bird is heard in the grove. Leverrier discovered a new 
planet. How doth the little busy bee improve each shining hour. 
Knowledge gives power. The heavens declare the glory of God. 

2. In the above sentences, change the verbs in the active voice into the pas- 
sive, and the verbs in the passive voice into the active. 

3. Write five sentences containing regular, and five containing irregular 
verbs, in the passive voice. 

MODEL. 
REG. PASSIVE. IRREG. PASSIVE. 

Charles I. was beheaded. The grass was mown. 

The agent unknown or concealed. Intransitive verbs with a preposition. 
Passive forms of "come," "arrive," "fall," &c. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MODE. < 'J 

4. Select the verbs in the following examples, tell whether they are regular 
or irregular, transitive or intransitive, of the active or passive voice: — 

The thunders of heaven are sometimes heard to roll in the voice of a 
united people. 

In the battle of Solferino, four hundred thousand men are said to have 
been engaged. 

I care not what mines are opened in the mountains of Siberia, or in 
the' sierras of California ; wheresoever the fountains of the golden tide 
may gush forth, the streams will flow to the regions where educated 
intellect has woven the boundless net-work of the useful and ornamental 
arts. — Everett. 

'Tis finished. — Their thunders are hushed on the moors ; 

Culloden is lost, and my country deplores : 

But where is the iron-bound prisoner ? "Where ? 

For the red eye of battle is shut in desj)air. — Campbell. 

89. Mode. 

1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is 
asserted. 

2. Mode does not show the manner of the action or state, but the 
manner of its assertion. It may be asserted as a reality, or as some- 
thing imagined, that may, can, or must take place, or as something in - 
gined or supposed, which is placed under a condition, or as something 
desired. The manner of the action or state is expressed by means of 
limiting words; as, "The soldier fought (a reality) bravely" (manner of 
the act) ; "The soldier may fight (something imagined) bravely" (man- 
ner of the supposed act). 

3. The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb (80, 2) ; for, 
since it docs not assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any man- 
ner or mode of assertion. The same may be said of the participles. In 
fact, the infinitive is a participle, partaking of the properties of the 
noun and the verb, as the (so called) participles partake of the proper- 
ties of the adjective and the verb. 

4. There arc commonly reckoned five modes — the indicative, 
the potential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. 

5. Tin 1 indicative mode asserts a thing as actually existing ; as, 
" James loves." "William was struck.'' 

G. The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, permi 
necessity, or duty of acting, or being in a certain state ; as, " We 

Mode, the manner of assortion. Infinitive not properly a mode. Tbo 
indicative mode. The potential. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

can sing." " You may write" " He must read." u They 
should obey the law." 

7. The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional, or 
doubtful; as, "If he leave me." " Though he slay me." 

8. The imperative mode asserts a command, an entreaty, or a 
permission; as, "Write." " Go thou." " Be admonished." 

9. The infinitive mode represents the action or state as- an 
abstract noun ; as ; " To write" " To be seen" 

(10.) The indicative mode is used in principal propositions, and is 
employed to represent what is actual, real, or absolute. It may be used 
in interrogative or exclamatory sentences; as, "Has he arrived?" 
" The villain has fired the dwelling!" It is often used in subordinate 
propositions, but always to represent what is actual; as, " I know that 
he discovered (actually) the plot." 

11. The potential mode is also used in principal propositions, not, 
however, to represent the actual, but that which, at the time of speak- 
ing, exists, or is supposed to exist, only in idea — that which is merely 
imagined or thought of. The ideal act or state, however, is supposed to 
have some relation to reality. It can become a reality ; that is, there is 
no impossibility in the way of its realization ; no ability is wanting : it 
may become a reality, that is, permission is granted, or in the final result 
perhaps it will be a reality ; it must become actual, that is, a necessity, or 
an obligation exists. This mode may be used in interrogative, exclama- 
tory, or supplicatory sentences; as, "Can he leave the city in safety?" 
"He may be assassinated!" " May the truth be victorious." It may 
be used in subordinate propositions, but always to represent what is 
ideal or what has not been realized; as, "He says that I may (I do not 
now) attend school." The potential may be known by the auxiliaries, 
may, can, must, might, could, would, should. See (113). 

12. The subjunctive mode is used exclusively in subordinate proposi- 
tions, and hence its name ("sub," under, and "jungo," I join). It is 
joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordinate con- 
junctions, if, though, although, lest, except, that, save that, unless, provided 
that, and some others ; they impart the idea of doubt, contingency, or 
conditionalily. Whatever of futurity may be implied in the subjunctive, 
is to be accounted for either from the fact that anything that is condi- 
tional or contingent is yet to be realized (if ever), or from the influence 
of a suppressed auxiliary, such as shall or should, which imparts (though 
understood) the idea of futurity; as, "Though he (should) slay me, 
yet will I trust in him." 

The subjunctive mode. The imperative. The infinitive. The indicative 
and potential used in principal propositions. The subjunctive used in subor- 
dinate propositions. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MODE. 81 

13. The subjunctive represents an ideal act, or a real act, conceived 
only as an idea, and places it under a condition accompanied with more 
or less doubt. As to a distinctive form of the subjunctive, it can scarcely 
be said to have any, unless it be found in the present tense, or present 
and past of to be ; and in all such cases (with the single exception of 
were, in examples like "If it were," "If I were"), by supplying an 
ellipsis, they may be referred to the forms of the indicative future or 
the past potential; as, "If it rain, we shall not leave"=If it should 
rain, &c. " Till one greater man restore (shall restore) us, and regain 
(shall regain) the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse." The majority 
of writers, at the present time, employ the forms of the indicative pre- 
sent; as, "If it rains;" "If he leaves." Hence the subjunctive may be 
regarded as borrowing its forms from the indicative and potential modes. 

14. The imperative mode is used in principal propositions. It is the 
mode which expresses will or desire. It may usually be known by the 
omission of the subject; as, "Bead" (thou); "write." The force of this 
mode, under the same form, depends upon the relation of the parties. 
If a superior speaks imperatively to an inferior, it is a command ; if an 
equal to an equal, it is an exhortation or an entreaty ; if an inferior to 
a superior, it is a prayer or supplication. The imperative is made sub- 
ordinate only in a direct quotation; as, "God said, Let there be light." 
It is often elegantly put for a conditional clause ; as, " Let but the com- 
mons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Cassar's 
wounds" = Could the commons, &c, or, If the commons could but 
hear, &c. 

15. The infinitive is used in abridged propositions, and hence is wholly 
dependent, being incorporated as an element of another proposition. 
It does not assert anything ; it is not limited by the number and person 
of a subject, and hence its name (80, 2), injinitioe— unlimited, in distinc- 
tion from finite, which is applied to all verbs used in construction with 
their subjects, and thereby limited by the number and person of the latter. 

1G. The infinitive is used as an abstract noun, yet it may be associated 
with the subject from which it has been abstracted; as, "The soldier 
faints" (finite), "for the soldier to faint" (infin.); "He goes" (finite), 
"for him to go" (infin.) ; " we told him to go" (infin.). 



90. Exercise. 

. 1. Tell the mode of each of the verbs in the following examples; also the 
kind of verb : — 

Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ? declare, 
if thou hast understanding. 

Forma of tho subjunctive. The imperative used in principal propositions. 

The subjunctive used in abridged propositions. 

F 



bZ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then said Jesus to his disciples, If any man will come after me, let 
him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow mc. 

Daughter of Faith ! awake, arise, illume 

The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb. — Campbell. 

I steal by lawns and grassy plots, 

I slide by hazel covers ; 
I move the sweet forget-me-nots 

That grow for happy lovers. 

And out again I curve and flow, 

To join the brimming river ; 
For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on for ever. — Tennyson. 



PARTICIPLES. 

91. Definition and Distinctions. 

A participle is a word having the signification of a verb, but 
the construction of an adjective; as, "We found him lying on 
the ground." " Having written his letter, he sent it to his friend." 

1. The participle is so called because it participates or partakes of the 
properties of the verb and adjective. It is the attributive (80, 4, 5) part 
of the verb alone ; it is the being, action, or state deprived of the 
power of assertion ; and therefore, when joined without the copula to the 
noun whose attribute it expresses, it must be assumed (not predicated), 
(163, 7) just as an adjective is assumed under similar circumstances. It 
has the meaning of the verb, is modified like the verb, but is used like 
the adjective. 

2. The participle is not a distinct part of speech, but is derived 
directly from the verb, — the present by adding inj, the past by adding 
ed, to all regular verbs, and the perfect by prefixing to the past the 
auxiliary having. 

92. Classes of Participles. 

1. There are, properly, two participles — the present and the * 
perfect; as, reading, having read; (being) loved, having lcc:i 
loved. 

2. These two participles correspond to the present and perfect tensca 

The participle. The attributive part of the verb,. Two participles. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — PARTICIPLES. 83 

of the verb. They are used in abridged propositions ; the former when 
the proposition before its abridgment was in the present, past, or future 
tense ; the latter when it was in either of the perfect tenses. See 
abridged propositions (182, G). 

3. There are, however, three forms, commonly called participles 
— the present, the past, and the perfect. Thus, — 





Pres. 


Past. 


Per/. 


Active Voice 
Passive Voice 


. loving, 

. [being) loved, 


loved, 
loved, 


having loved, 
having been loved. 



4. The passive participle loved does not necessarily denote past time. 
Of itself, it simply denotes the reception of an act, complete or incom- 
plete. The time depends upon that of the verb with which it is asso- 
ciated. 

5. The form called the past participle may have been once the pas- 
sive participle, having the same form. If so, it has now wholly lost 
its original signification, and, strictly speaking, has lost its character 
as a participle. It never partakes of the properties of the adjective; 
it never is used to limit a noun like that part of speech ; it is never 
used alone in participial constructions, that is, where the participle, 
with the words depending upon it, takes the place of a* subordinate 
proposition ; it is always found in the predicate, either of complete or 
abridged propositions, and is connected with some form of have; as, 
have loved, had loved, having loved; it has an active signification, and 
always denotes a past, completed act, and belongs as well to intransitive 
as to transitive verbs. 

6. The passive participle of the same form, on the contrary, is limited 
to transitive verbs, has always a passive signification, may denote as 
well present as past time ; it may have the participial construction, or 
with the copula, may form the passive verb in all the modes and tenses. 

7. Participles, in their appropriate use, take the place of dependent 
propositions, and consequently represent time in the same manner as 
the propositions from which they are derived. As the verb of the 
dependent clause dates from the time expressed by the principal verb, 
and not from that of the speaker, the participle may be present, with a 
past, present, or future act ; as, " I saw a man walking ;" " I see a man 
Walking;" "I shall see a man walking." So, again, the participle may 
denote a past act, completed at the time of a past, present, or future 
act; as, '• Saving ploughed his held, the farmer wiped, mm, will sow the 
seed." 

Three participial forms. The past participle. The passive participle. 
Participles same as dependent propositions. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

93. Present Active Participle. 

1. The present active participle denotes an action or state pre- 
sent, and in progress at the time represented by the principal 
verb; as, " Vie find, found, or shall find him sitting in a chair." 

2. This participle always ends in ing ; it has an active signification, 
and may be used in abridging propositions ; as, "I saw a man walking 
in the meadow" i. e. who was walking. It may be used wholly as an adjec- 
tive , it is then placed before the noun; as, "The roaring billows." 
When thus used, it is called a participial adjective. It may be used with 
the copula in the progressive form of the verb ; as, "I am reading." It 
may be used like the Latin gerund to denote a concomitant act ; as, 
" The Son of Man came eating and drinking." It may be used (1.) wholly 
as a noun, with the preceding, and ojfefollowing ; as, "The reading of the 
law;" or (2.) in the construction of the noun with the modifications of 
the verb ; as, " The eye is never satisfied with beholding the stupendous 
works of the Creator." 

3. Though this participle is usually active, it sometimes has a passive 
signification. When an object is undergoing a progressive change, and 
we wish to express this as a continuous reception of the act, our lan- 
guage is deficient in appropriate forms. Good writers have resorted to 
the use of the active participle, giving it a passive signification ; as, 
" The house is building." "New efforts are making for the extension 
of this trade." — Webster. " This new tragedy was acting." — Everett. 

Recent writers of some distinction have adopted the forms, "The 
house is being built." "Preparations are being made." It is not the 
province of the grammarian to dictate as to questions of usage, but to 
admit and explain whatever good, national, and reputable usage sanc- 
tions. When subjected to these tests, it must be said of such forms, 
that they are by no means adopted by the best writers as good English, 
they are not sanctioned by the best grammarians, and they are of too 
recent origin to be regarded as idioms of the language. 

94. Present Passive Participle. 

1. The present passive participle denotes the reception of an 
act, at the time represented by the principal verb ; as, " He lives, 
lived, will live, loved by all." 

2. This participle may be used as an adjective, or with the copula, to 
form the passive verb ; as, "A refined taste is possessed only by the culti- 
vated." When preceded by being, it may be used as a noun; as, "By 

The present active participle. Its form and uses. Sometimes has a pas- 
sive signification. The present passive participle. Its uses. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — PARTTCIPES. 89 

being involved in one wrong act, he was soon lost to all the appeals of 
his friends." 

95. Perfect Participles, Active and Passive. 

1. The perfect active participle denotes an action or state com- 
pleted at the time represented by the principal verb ; as, " Having 
finished his speech, he sat down." 

2. The perfect passive participle denotes the reception of an 
act, past and completed, at the time represented by the principal 
verb ; as, " Having been driven from home, he enlisted in the 
army." 

€. The perfect participles are never used like the present, with the 
copula, to form the predicate. They may be used as verbal nouns ; as, 
" He was accused of having obtained goods on false pretences." 

98. The Participle predicated or assumed. 

1. The action or state expressed by the participle may be either 
predicated or assumed (163, 7); as, " The horse is running 
through the street;" " The horse running through the street." 

2. The participle, when the act is predicated, constitutes, with the 
copula, or auxiliary have, a form of the verb. The present participle is 
used in the progressive form (109, 1) or imperfect tenses; the past in the 
complete form, or perfect; the passive, in the passive form; as, "The 
farmer was ploughing his field." " The farmer had ploughed his field." 
" The field iv as ploughed by the farmer." 

3. The participle, when the act is assumed, is equivalent to a subor- 
dinate clause ; as, " The boat which sails on yonder lake is propelled by 
steam" = The boat sailing on yonder lake is propelled by steam. 

97. Exercise. 

1. Write (he participles of the following verbs: — 

Find, obey, ride, grow, lie, lay, sit, set, lose, loose, load, steal, arrive, 
suppose, happen, come, do, take, run. 

2. Use each of the above participles in a short sentence. 

Models. Finding his mistake, lie left. The source of the river bang 
found, the travellers returned home. Having found the owner, lie re- 
stored the ring. 

The perfect active participle. Tho perfect passive participle. The Action 
predicated or assumed. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Point out the participles in the folio icing examples ; tell ivhat kin<l 
of participle each one is, and name the verb from which it is derived: — 

Let the last feeble and lingering glance of my dying eyes, rather 
behold the gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and honored 
throughout the earth, still full high advanced, — its arms and trophies 
streaming in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor 
a single star obscured. — Webster. 

One wave rises, and having reached its destined limit, falls gently 
away, and is succeeded by yet another. — Story. 

Then shook the hills with thunder riven, 
Then rushed the steeds to battle driven, 
And louder than the bolts of heaven, 

Far flashed the red artillery. — Campbell. 

The warriors on the turrets high, 
Moving athwart the evening sky, 

Seemed forms of giant height. 
Above the gloomy portal arch, 
Timing his footsteps to a march, 

The warder kept his guard, 
Low humming as he paced along, 
Some ancient border-gathering song. — Scott. 

98. Tense. 

1. Tense primarily denotes the time of an action or event. 

2. Although tense properly denotes the time of an action or event, 
the tense form of the verb is made also to denote the state of an act. 
If an act is spoken of without reference to its progress or completion, we 
have the simple or indefinite present, past, or future ; as, I love, I loved, 
I shall love. But if a progressive and unfinished state of the act is to be 
represented, we have another form for the present, past, and future ; 
as, I am writing, I teas writing, I shall be writing. If, again, we wish to 
represent the finished or completed state of an indefinite act, we have still 
another form for the present, past, and future ; as, I have loved, I had 
loved, I shall have loved. If we wish to represent the finished or completed 
state of a, progressive act, we have yet another form ; as, I have been 
writing, I had been writing, I shall have been writing. If we wish to make 
the simple form emphatic, we have again, another ; as, I do love, I did 
love, for the present and past. If we wish to show that the subject is 
receiving or suffering an act in present, past, or future time, we have the 
forms, I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved. 

Tense. Time and state of an act. Progressive, complete, and passive state. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE. 87 

3. Tense does not mean the time which elapses from the beginning to 
the end of an act, that is, the duration of an act. But it refers either 
to the present, to an indefinite period antecedent to the present, or to 
an indefinite period subsequent to the present. The present, strictly 
speaking, has no length ; it is the point where the past and future meet. 
But for the purposes of language, any portion, as a day, a month, a 
year, a century, may be take*n as the present, and all other time as 
past or future. The present progressive form, however, always assumes 
the moment of speaking as present. 

4. The present is the point or period of time assumed by the speake - ? 
or writer, and is the epoch to which all events are referred. Whatever 
occurs in it, whether before or after the precise moment of speaking, is 
present ; whatever occurs out of it, is either past or future. 



89. Divisions of Time. 

1. There are three divisions of time — the past, the present, 
and the futiwe. 

2. Were it not necessary to make other distinctions in time based on a 
subdivision of these three, there would be but three tense forms, — the 
present, the past, and the future. But it is often required to give to an 
event a double reference: (1.) to the time of speaking, and (2.) to a 
given point or portion of the present, past, or future. Tenses which 
require this second point of reference are called relative tenses; while 
those which have only a single reference to the speaker are called also- 
lute tenses 

3. Each division has two tenses — an absolute and a relative. There 
are, therefore, six tenses — three absolute and three relative ; as (abso- 
lute), "I write," "I wrote," "I shall write ," (relative), "I have written'' 
(some time to-day or this year), " I had icritten" (before the boat sailed), 
"I shall have icritten" (at noon). 

4. The absolute tenses take their name from the division of time to 
which they belong. Thus we have the present tense, the past tense, the 
future tense. The relative tenses affix to the name of the tense, the 
word perfect, which refers, not so much to the time as to the eomple'i>»i 
(if i he act. Thus we have the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

5. To these six tenses may be added, with propriety, three others, 
called the present imperfect, past imperfect, and future imperfect; as, "I 
am writing;" "I was writing ;" "I shall be writing." These forms are 
usually relative tenses; as, "I am writing -while you are reading;" "I 

Tense not the duration of an act Signification of "present." Divisions 

, of time. Absolute and relative tenses. Perfect ami imperfect 



CO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was writing when the coach arrived;" "I shall be writing when you re- 
turn." These are, however, called the progressive form of the verb, and 
may be used even in the perfect tenses, to show that a progressive act 
is completed ; as, " I have been writing" (but I am not now) ; " I had been 
writing" (but I was not at the past time referred to) ; "I shall have been 
writing" (but not at the future time referred to). 

100. Classes of Tenses. 
The tenses are — the present, the present perfect ; the past, the 
past perfect ; the future, the future perfect. 

101. Present Tense. 
1. The present tense represents what takes place in present 
time; as, "I see ;" " I am seeing;" "I do see;" "I am seen." 

2. By present time is meant the present of the speaker or writer. 
The present of the hearer is the same as that of the speaker ; but that 
of the reader is not the same as that of the writer. 

3. This tense, in the common form, is used to denote a general truth 
or what is customary; as, "The boy attends school;" "Vice produces 
misery;" "Truth is powerful." In the progressive form indicative, it 
expresses what is now actually taking place; as, "He is writing." 
Mark the difference between " He sings," that is, "He is a singer" (but 
is not singing now), and "He is singing." 

4 The present is often used for other tenses. (1.) It is used for the 
past in animated narratives, where the writer or speaker seems trans- 
ported to the scene which he describes; as, "He seizes his musket, 
approaches the monster, and lags him upon the ground." (1.) It is used 
for the present perfect in speaking of authors long since dead, when their 
writings are referred to; as, "Matthew traces the descent of Joseph; 
Luke traces that of Mary." (3.) It is used for the future after relative 
pronouns, and the subordinate connectives, till, until, as soon as, when, 
before, if,- as, "We will pay him when he comes." "He will devour 
every insect which comes in his way." 

102. Present Perfect Tense. 
1. The present perfect tense represents a past event completed 
in present time; as, "I have seen;" "I have been seeing ;" "I 
have been seen." 

Present tense. Common, and progressive forms. The present used for 
other tenses. The present perfect. * 



ETYMOLOGY — VERES — TENSES. 89 

2. Whenever the attention is drawn to the completion of an act, the 
question of time refers not to the entire act, but to the end of it. If the 
completion takes place in a portion of time which the speaker assumes 
as present, however long that portion may be, or however remote the 
time of the completion may be from the moment of speaking, the tense 
is the present perfect ; as, " I have written a letter this year." The letter 
might have been finished on the first of January, but the mention of it 
might have been made on the last of the following December. But 
should one moment intervene between the portion assumed as present 
(one year in the above example) and that in which the act took place, 
the past must be used if we simply refer to the act, or the past perfect 
if we refer to the completion of the act. 

3. This tense, like the present, is used for other tenses; as, " Shak- 
speare has excelled all other dramatists." " When I have finished my task, 
I shall return." 

103. Past Tense. 

1. The past tense represents what took place in time wholly 
past; as, "I saw;" "1 was seeing ;" "I was seen." 

2. The past and the present perfect may both refer to one and the same 
act. If the speaker refers to an act indefinitely, that is, without regard 

- to its progress or completion, and places it in the past, beyond any por- 
tion of what he assumes as present, he must use the past tense ; as, "I 
icrote this forenoon ;" the afternoon being assumed as present. " I have 
written (the same act) to-day;" the whole day being assumed as present, 
and the completion (however it may have been with the beginning), has 
taken place in that present. 

3. The past tense, common form (109, 1), often refers to an act indefi- 
nitely. It denotes, like the present, what was customary; as, "He 
attended school constantly." But in the progressive form it denotes 
a definite act in past time, but not completed ; as, " He icas writing when 
I came." 

104. Past Perfect Tense. 

1. The past perfect represents a past event completed in time 
wholly past; as, "I had seen;" "I had been seeing;" "I had 

been seen." 

2. The present perfect, the past, and the past perfect may each refer 
to the same act. Suppose a person to write a letter on Monday : he 



The present perfect distinguished from the past and past perfect Present 
perfect for other tenses. Past tense. Pas! oompared with present perfect. 
Common ami progressive forms of the pact tonse. Past perfect tense. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

speaks of it on Wednesday, assuming Wednesday alone as the present. 
He says (referring to the act absolutely and indefinitely), " I wrote a 
letter." But while he was writing the mail arrived; he now says (re- 
ferring definitely and relatively to the act unfinished, but in progress), 
"I teas writing a letter when the mail arrived." Again: in speaking 
of the same act, he says (referring definitely and relatively to the comple- 
tion of the act), "I had written a letter before the mail left ;" or he may 
say (referring definitely and relatively both to the progress and completion 
of the act), "I had been writing a letter." These forms are used, first, 
because the time was wholly past, including no part of Wednesday ; 
secondly, because an indefinite absolute act in past time requires the 
simple past, wrote; a definite relative and progressive act in past time 
requires the past progressive form, was loriiing ; while a completed rela- 
tive act in past time requires the past perfect, had written, and a com- 
pleted progressive past act requires the past perfect progressive, had been 
writing. Now, let the speaker assume, not Wednesday (though that be 
the day of speaking, as before), but the whole week, as the present ; he 
cannot say, "I am writing," for the act is not going on ; he cannot say, 
"I wrote," for the act is included in the time assigned as present, i. e., 
the time is not wholly past. But he can say (referring to the completion 
of the act in the assumed present), " I have written a letter" (this week) ; 
or (referring both to the progress and completion of the act. "I have 
been icriiing a letter" (this week). These forms are used, first, because 
the time (one week) is not wholly past, and secondly, because the nature 
of the act, as before, requires them. 

Remark. — In drilling pupils on tense, it is important, first, to give a clear 
idea of what is assumed as present. It is not always expressed as above 
( Wednesday, a week), but is more frequently assumed without notice, merely 
implied; as, "He has written." In the second place, the nature or stale of 
the act as indefinite, progressive, completed, or progressive completed, should be 
fully exhibited. 

105. Future Tense. 

1. The future tense represents what will take place in future 
time; as, " I shall see." " I shall be seeing." " I shall be seen." 

2. The future, like the simple present or past, is used to denote a 
future custom ; as, "Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judali shall not 
vex Ephraim." " The lion shall eat straw like the ox." 

106. Future Perfect Tense. 
The future perfect tense represents an event as completed in 

The proper use of the present perfect, past, and past perfect. Future tense. 
Future perfect tense. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE. 91 

future time; as, " I shall have seen" "I shall have been seeing." 
" I shall havG been seen." 



107. Tenses in all the Modes. 

1. The subjunctive mode has six tenses — the same as the 
indicative. 

2. The potential mode has four tenses — the present, the pre- 
sent perfect, past, and past perfect. 

3. The infinitive has two tenses — the present and perfect. 

4. The imperative has only one tense — the present. 

5. Tense, in the subjunctive mode, does not usually mark time with 
the same exactness as in the indicative. Thus,— 

(a.) In conditional clauses, if the thing spoken of denote something actual 
or taken as actual, the tense form usually denotes the true time ; as, " If it 
rained, I did not know it." But if it refers to something merely hypotheti- 
cal or supposed, the past tense represents present time, and the past perfect, 
past time ; as, "If I loere going now (but I cannot), I should ride." "If I 
had had an opportunity yesterday (but I had none), I should have spoken 
to him." 

(b.) The verb to be has a distinct form for the past tense used hypothetical^', 
and denoting present time ; as, " If I were not Alexander, I would be Dio- 
genes." 

(c.) Were in this use cannot stand for would he, or would have been, although 
in other uses it may ; as, " It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum." 
Had, in like manner, is used for would, or would have ; as, " I had rather be 
a dog, and bay the moonj than such a Roman." " It had been better for him 
if he had pursued the opposite course." 

6. The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the signification 
which their names denote. 

(a.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or necessity 
to perform an act sometimes present, and sometimes future ; as, "We may 
(now) go (to-morrow)." " You can (now) write (now)." "lie must (now) 
leave" (now, to-morrow, next week). 

(h.) The present perfect generally denotes a present possibility, n 
&o., that a past act was performed; as, "I must have written'' = It is bow 
undeniable that I wrote (yesterday). 

(c.) The past denotes (1.) a past possibility. Ac, to perform an act : 03, 
"Can you write?" "I could write yesterday." •• He would often sit the 
entire evening without uttering a word." Would and might are now Beldom, 
if ever, used to denote past time. (2.) It denotes the present possibility, Ac, 
When followed by a conditional clause j as, "I might or could go (now) if I 

Tenses of the subjunctive— potential — infinitive and imperative modes. 
Time denotod by the tense-forms in the subjunctive — in the potential. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

would." "I should or would go (now) if I could." (3.) It denotes a future 
2>ossibility„ &c, ; as, "I shall not go ; but if I should yo (hereafter), I could 
(hereafter) walk." (4.) It denotes a universal duty without reference to time ; 
as, " Children should obey their parents." 

(d.) The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, Ac, but by no 
means a past completed act, as in the indicative, thus ; " I coxdd have assisted 
you (yesterday) if you had desired it" = I was able to assist you. 

7. The infinitive mode has but two tenses, the present and perfect. 
They denote, the former an indefinite or progressive, and the latter a 
completed state of the act; as, "To write." " To be writing." " To have 
written." " To have been writing." 

(a.) The infinitive, like the participle, may be connected with any mode or 
tense of the principal verb. 

(b.) The present infinitive denotes a time present with that of the principal 
verb, and not necessarily present with the speaker; as, "I intend to write." 
"I intended to write." " I had intended to write." "I shall begin to write." 

(c.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by the 
principal verb ; as, "She is said to have sung." " She teas thought to have 
written." " She will be known to have done it." 

8. The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the time 
of giving a command ; the time of its performance is future. 



108. Exercise. 

1. Tell the tenses of the following verbs: — 

Did you hear the lecture ? He listened earnestly. I hope to find the 
study interesting. It will not rain. Ralph had intended to go. I have 
heard the Irish orator. We saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. 
Richard will have learned his lesson by the time we wish to leave. I 
shall have finished my work when Sarah comes. The child cried. Was 
the view pleasant? Are the notes of the nightingale sad ? Had Anne 
read the book? The hills were covered with snow. 

2. Tell the tenses of the following verbs ; also which denote the recep- 
tion of an act, which the progress, which the completion of an act, and 
which an indefinite act : — 

The paper is published in Boston. Is he planting the seed? Has 
Frank been drawing ? I shall be allowed to go. When will Caroline go 
to ride ? Have they been to the concert ? My brother is teaching. 
Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common lot. Have you 
been taught to sing ? Had his wife heard the good news ? I wish to 
go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget the penalty. Flowers 

Tenses of the infinitive. Time denoted by the infinitive. Time denoted by 
the imperative. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — FORMS. 93 

bloom. Our friends will have gone when you come. Joseph tore the 
hook. What shall I do ? William has gained the prize. Have you 
been to Europe? Fanny has been learning to skate. The clock has 
struck. Washington was never known to tell a lie. He had been pro- 
moted. You do not think so. You will learn to know her better. It 
shall not be. The general is deceived. Charles has fallen from the 
tree. He broke his arm. Louisa was carrying the package. 



109. Forms of the Verb. 

1. Transitive verbs may have four forms — the common, the 
emphatic, the progressive, and the passive; as ; "I love." "I do 
love." " I am loving." u I am loved." 

2. The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indicative, 
and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through all 
the modes and tenses. 

3. Intransitive verbs may have three forms — the common, the 
emphatic, and the progressive ; as ; "I sit." "I do sit." "I am 
sitting." 

4. The common form represents an act indefinitely, as a custom, or as 
completed without reference to its progress; as, "llove." "I loved."' 
"I shall love." "I have loved." 

5. The variations of this form in the second and third persons, as seen in 
the terminations est and eth, belong to what is called the solemn style. They 
are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, and in various sacred books. 

6. The emphatic form represents an act with emphasis; as, "I do 
■write." " I did write." 

7. This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without empha- 
sis ; as, " Do you write f" " Did you write t" " I do riot write." 

8. The progressive form represents the progress of an unfinished act ; 
as, "J. am writing." 

9. In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a progressive act; 
as, "I have been writing." " I shall have been writing." 

10. The passive form represents the reception of an act; as, "I tun 
loved." " I was loved." " I shall be loved." 

11. The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish to represent the 
completion of a passive state; as, "I have been honored" "I had been 

honored." " I shall have been honored." 

The following table gives the form for each division of time, with a 
description of the state of the act : — 

Forma of transitive verbs. Forms of intransitive verbs. Moaning of tho 
forms. 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



110. Forms for each Division of Time. 



I. Present. 





Time. 


Act. 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 


Present. 


Indefinite. 

Progressive incomplete 
Complete. 

Progressive complete. 
Indefinite emphatic. 
Indefinite received. 


7. 
8. 


« 


Progressive received. 
Complete received. 



Example. 
He icrites. 
He is writing. 
He has written. 
lie has been writing. 
He does tcrite. 
The letter is icritten. 
The house is building. 
The letter has been written. 



II. Past. 

Indefinite. 

Progressive incomplete. 
Complete. 

Progressive complete. 
Indefinite emphatic. 
Indefinite received. 
Progressive received. 
Complete received. 



He wrote. 

He teas icriting. 

He had written. 

He had been writing. 

He did write. 

The letter teas written. 

The house was building. 

The letter had been icritten. 



III. Future. 



Indefinite. 

Progressive incomplete. 
Complete. 

Progressive complete. 
Indefinite received. 
Progressive received. 
Complete received. 



He will tcrite. 

He wtll be writing. 

He will have written. 

He ivill have been icriting. 

The letter will be icritten. 

The house will be building. 

The letter will have been written. 



111. Auxiliaries. 

1. Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conjngatiog 
other verbs. They are, — 

Pres. Do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, mast. 
Past. Did, teas, had, should, would, might, could. - -. 

2. The auxiliaries were originally principal verbs ; and some of them 
are still used as such. 

Eight forms for the present. Eight forms for the past. Seven forms for 
the future. Auxiliaries. 






ETYMOLOGY— VERBS — AUXILIARIES. 



95 



3. The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes and tenses of other 
verbs, and to give to the forms in which they are used, the shades of 
meaning peculiar to their original signification. 

4. In the early stages of the language, these verbs were undoubtedly 
used as principal verbs followed and modified by the infinitive of what 
is now called the principal verb ; as, may go ; can read ; must sing ; like 
the Latin Possum scribere, or the. French J & puis aller, or the German Ich 
kann schreiben. Finally, the subordinate infinitive came to be regarded 
as the principal verb, and that on which it depended became its auxiliary. 

5. The auxiliaries should be regarded merely as form-words, or words 
used to form the tenses, and to show relations of time and mode, as the 
preposition is used to show relations of time, place, origin, cause, manner, 
property, material, &c. In fact, all words used to show a relation of 
whatever nature, such as prepositions, relative pronouns, and conjunctive 
adverbs, are a species of auxiliary. In the progress of language, these 
auxiliaries have increased, and in the same ratio, the inflection of the 
principal word has diminished. An exact and familiar acquaintance 
with their various uses is essential to a correct knowledge of the 
language. (See 113 below). 

6. The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses ; the present and 
the past, except must, which has no variation. They may be thus re- 
presented : — 





112. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliaries. 






Singular. 






Plural. 




1st Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


1st Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


/ 


Thou 


He 


We 


You 


They. 




Am 


art 


is 


are 


are 


are 




Do 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 




Have 


hast 


has 


have 


have 


have 


Present. * 


Will 


wilt 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Shall 


shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 




May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 




Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 




. Must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


must 




' Was 


wast 


was 


were 


were 


were 




Did 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 




Had 


hadst 


had 


had 


had 


had 


Past. - 


Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


Would 


would 




Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


Should 


should 




Might 


mightst 


might 


might 


might 


might 




^ Could 


couldsjt 


could 


could 


Could 


could 



Uses of auxiliaries. Primitive use. Auxiliaries as form-word*. Conjuga- 
tion of auxiliaries. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

113. Signification of the Auxiliaries. 

1. The auxiliaries, deriving much of their force from their 
original significations, give their own shades of meaning to the 
tense form into which they enter. 

2. Be, from the Saxon "beon," to be fixed, to exist, denotes existence. 
As an auxiliary, it is the copula, used (80, 5) to join an attribute to, and 
assert its existence in the subject; as, ''The heat is oppressive." 

3. Do, from the Saxon "don," to do, denotes action. As an auxiliary 
it is used chiefly to give intensity of meaning to the action of the princi- 
pal verb. This it does especially in affirmative sentences, and, to some 
degree, in negative. But in interrogative sentences, it is little more 
than a sign of interrogation ; as, "Ho try," " I did go ;" " He did not 
speak ;" " Do you hear it ?" 

4. Have, from the Saxon "habban," to have, denotes possession, and 
as an auxiliary retains its original meaning in the idea of completion ; 
as if an act^was not fully possessed by its subject until completed. It 
seems to have acquired this meaning thus: — In "I have treasures con- 
cealed," have denotes possession, and is separated from "concealed;'' 
in "I have concealed treasures," it still denotes possession, but is 
brought into connection with "concealed;" whereas, in "I have con- 
cealed the treasures," it is brought into intimate relation *with "con- 
cealed," which passes from a passive to an active signification, and here 
we have the idea of possession or completion of the act. 

5. Shall and Will. Shall, from the Saxon "scealan," to be obliged, 
has the primary meaning of obligation, and implies an agency, usually 
personal, by which it is enforced. This agency may be the determination 
of the actor, but is most commonly that of another. Will, from the 
Saxon " willan," to determine, denotes determination, resolution, or purpose, 
springing directly from the agent himself. But that which one is under 
obligation to do, and which, it is determined, he shall do, is not now 
done. Hence, both shall and will imply futurity." Thus, "You shall 
write," denotes a present obligation to perform a future act; it implies 
that /, the speaker, have so resolved. So, when I say emphatically, "I 
shall write," both the obligation and the resolution pertain to the agent. 
But when I say it without emphasis, I simply predict a future event. 

6. Hence, shall and will have. 

(o.) A complex signification, when a future event is made to depend upon 
the determination, resolution, or volition of a personal agent (either the actor 
or another) ; as, " He shall go" (I §o resolve). " I will go" (I myself so re- 
solve. 

Meaning of the auxiliaries — "Be," "Do," << Have," ''Shall/' and "Will." 
. Complex signification of " Shall and " Will." 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES. 97 

(b.) A simple signification, denoting mere futurity, when a future event is 
wholly or chiefly independent of volition or resolution ; as, " It will rain" 
(whatever you or I may resolve) ; "I shall be overtaken" (independent of my 
will). In this case the speaker merely predicts or expresses an opinion. The 
past tenses should and would are used with the same or nearly the same sig- 
nifications. 

7. Two parties (the speaker sometimes being a third), are necessarily 
involved in both these cases ; the one who resolves or predicts, and the 
one who acts. Two cases may arise. (1.) Both parties may be repre- 
sented by the same person ; as, " I resolve or determine that I will write ;" 
or simply, "I will write." "I predict or believe that I shall write;" or 
simply, " I shall write." " You resolve that you will write." " You be- 
lieve or predict that you shall write." (2.) Both parties may be repre- 
sented, one by one person, and the other by another ; as, ''/resolve that 
you shall write ;" or simply, " You shall write." " I predict that you will 
write ;" or simply, " You will write." " You resolve that I shall write." 
" You predict that I shall (not will) write." " He resolves that you shall 
write." "He predicts that you will write." In interrogative sentences, 
the same principles prevail, but the will or opinion of the second person 
is referred to; as, "Shall he write?" that is, "Is it your will or resolu- 
tion that he shall write ?" " Will it rain ?" that is, "Is it your opinion 
or prediction that it will rain ?" 

A careful inspection of these and similar examples will justify the 
following rules : — 

8. Rule I. When the person who resolves or predicts is not mentioned, the 
speaker or first person is always understood in affirmative, and the hearer or 
second in interrogative sentences; as, "You shall go." (/will it.) 
"Shall he go?" (Do you will it?) "It will rain." (/predict it.) 
" Will it rain ?" (Do you predict it ?") 

9. Rule II. Will should be used when the resolution and the action are 
attributed to the same person, and shall ivhen they are attributed to differ- 
ent persons; "I will go." (I myself resolve.) "Will you go?" (Do 
you yourself resolve ?) "He will go." (He himself resolves.) "He 
shall go." (I resolve.) " They have determined that you shall go." 
" Shall he go." (Do you resolve ?) 

10. Rule III. Shall should be used when the prediction and the action 
are both attributed to the same person, or in any case, provided the action be 
attributed to the first person ; and will should be used when the prediction 
and the action (except in the case of the first person), are attributed to viv- 
ferent persons ; as, "You will bo promoted." (1 predict it.) •• 1 shall 
teach, or be a teacher." (I, he, you, or they, predict it.) "Will he 

Simple signification of '• Shall" and " Will." Parties involved, llules I. 
II., III. 

9 c; 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

teach?" (Do you predict it?) "Will it rain?" (Do you think so?) 
" It will rain." (I think so.) 

Note. — Shall is used in animated discourse, contrary to the last part of 
Rule III., when the speaker offers an implied pledge that his prediction shall 
be fulfilled; as, "When the precepts of the Gospel shall have been thoroughly 
inwrought into the lives of men, then shall war bo known only in history." 

11. Mat, Can, and Must. May, from the Saxon " magan," to be 
strong, expressed the primary idea of power, and implied a personal 
agency from without employed to remove all hindrance. Hence the idea 
01 permission. Can, is from the Saxon "cunnan," to know, that is, 
an intellectual power within one's self. Hence the idea of ability. Must 
is from the Saxon "motan," to be able, that is, to be impelled by a power 
coming — not from any personal agency without, as in case of may, nor 
within, as in case of can — but from the nature, constitution, or fitness 
of things. Hence, the idea of necessity, and, in a moral point of view, 
obligation. 

(1.) It will be seen that may, can, and must, agree in the idea of poiocr ; 
hence, the term potential, — but they differ in the source of it. As auxiliaries, 
they retain much of their original meaning. May expresses, in general, per- 
mission ; as, " You may visit the country." / 

12. May sometimes denotes possibility, and implies doubt; as, "It may 
rain." "He may have written;" sometimes a petition; as,," May it 
please you." 

13. Might and could also express in past time the same general mean- 
ing as in the present ; as, "I know I may or can go." " I knew I might 
or could go." 

14. Might, could, should, and would are used in conditional sentences, 
might in one clause answering to could in the other, when power, ability, 
or inclination is implied ; as, " He might sing, if he could or would." So, 
"He could sing, if he would." "He would sing, if he could." Some- 
times the conditional clause is omitted. " He might write." " He could 
write." "He would write." In all these examples a present possibility, 
liberty, &c, is referred to. When past time is referred to, we use the 
past perfect tense; as, "He might have written, if he would (have 
written). 

114. Exercise. 

1. In the following sentences, do shall and will resolve or predict? — 
I will go to the party. You shall not leave the room. It will be a 
sad day for him. He shall do as I tell him. Eugene will come to see 
me. I shall go to see my sister. I shall see him to-morrow. In the 

Signification and uses of "May," "Can," "Must," "Might," "Could," 
" Would," and " Should." 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES. ( J\) 

day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. Thou wilt show me 
the path of life. He will be elected. Perhaps I shall find my book. 
I will fear no evil. I will dwell in the house of my God for ever. Shall 
I go to ride ? Will Florence do it ? In spite of all your objections, I 
will do it. The sun will shine. The clock will strike. Shall you go 
to the lecture ? When will the time come ? Will the earl do well ? 

^2. Correct the following examples by giving and explaining the right use 
of shall and will : — 

I will receive a letter when my brother comes. If they make the 
changes, I do not think I will like them. Will we have a good time, if 
we go ? Perhaps you shall find the purse. I will be unhappy if you do 
not come. I will be afraid if it is dark. Surely goodness and mercy 
shall follow me, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. I 
resolve that he will return with me. I will be obliged to you. I will 
be punished. What sorrow will I have to endure ! The moon shall 
give her light. Will I write? He is resolved that Mary will go. If 
we examine the subject, we will perceive the error. I will suffer from 
poverty ; nobody shall help me. When shall you go with me ? Where 
will I leave you ? 

3. Study the folloioing Models for Analysis, and explain the auxiliaries : — 

We are marching • . . . Are is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, 
and asserts a thing as actual ; marching is a 
present participle, denoting a progressive act ; 
hence are marching is the present tense, indicative 
mode, progressive form. 

I do write Do is an auxiliary verb, denotes the present tense, 

asserts a thing as actual, and imparts emphasis ; 
write denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence do 
write is the present indicative, emphatic form. 

lie will sing Will is an auxiliary verb, denotes future time 

(simply predicts), and asserts a thing as actual ; 
sing denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence will 
sing is in the future tense, indicative mode. 

He has conquered . . . lias is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, 
is a sign of completed action, and asserts a thing 
as actual; conquered is the past participle of con- 
quer, denoting a completed or perfect, act ; hence 
has conquered is the present perfect, indicative. 

I had been writing . . . Ha d is an auxiliary verb, denotes past time. IB a 
sign of completion, ami with been asserts a thing 
as actual; been is the past participle of the aux- 
iliary to be, and is used to denote completion; 

Models for analysis. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

writing is the present participle of write, formeil 
by adding ing (25, 3), and denotes a progressive 
act ; hence had been writing is the past perfect pro- 
gressive, indicative. 

They will have fought . Will is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes future time 
(simply predicts), and asserts a thing as actual ; 
have is a sign of completion ; hence will have is 
the sign of future completion ; fought is the past 
participle of fight ; it denotes completion; hence 
will have fought is the future perfect tense, indica- 
tive. 

I may read May is, an auxiliary verb ; it denotes present time, 

asserts a thing as imagined or thought of (not as 
actual), and gives permission ; read denotes an 
indefinite act ; hence may read is the present 
potential, common form. 

If he is detained . ... Js is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, and 
of itself asserts a thing as actual, but under the 
influence of if, asserts a thing as doubtful and 
conditional; detained is a passive participle, de- 
noting the reception of an act ; hence is detained 
is the present passive, subjunctive. 

4. In the same manner analyze the following examples: — 

The tempest has passed. The sun -was rising. I shall be satisfied. 
The sailor would have been discharged, if he had not given a satisfactory 
excuse. The boys were anxious to go. Leslie hoped to have finished 
the work before the storm approached. Go to the prison. Write an 
answer. The letter may have been delayed. If you should write a 
correct lesson, you would be commended. 

5. Write three examples of the emphatic indicative past ; three of the pro- 
gressive past perfect ; four of the progressive potential past perfect ; also any 
other zvhich your teacher may give. 

6. Tell the mode, tense, and form of each of the following verbs: — 
Shepherd, lead on. Sweet is the breath of morn. These are thy 

works. He will be coming. Silence filled the courts of heaven. Thus 
far shalt thou go. He leads them forth through golden portals. Truth, 
ci'ushed to earth, shall rise again. Do thou in secret pray. If thy 
brother die, he shall live again. By that time he will have been reap- 
ing his wheat. They must go to rest. He has been studying his lesson. 
The sun will have set when I reach home. He sunk to repose where 
the red heaths are blended. 

Models for analysis. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 



101 



115. Uses of the Auxiliaries— formation of Tenses. 

1. The auxiliaries may combine, to form the tenses, — 

(a.) With participles ; as, " I am writing ; He was loved; We have written, 
(b.) With infinitives (111, 4) ; as, I may xorite ; They shall read. 
(c.) With both united ; as, I may have learned. 

2. In the indicative mode they combine as follows : — 

IEmp. form, do love, — inf. and do, dost, does. 
Prog, form, am loving, — pres. part, and am, 
is, art, are. 
Pas. form, am loved, — pas. part, and am, 
is, art, are. 



(a.) Abs. tenses. 



(b.) Rel. tenses. - 



Pres. pcrf. 



Past perf. 



Fut. perf. 



Emp. form, did love, — inf. and did, didst. 
Prog, form, icas loving, — pres. part, and was, 

toast, were. 
Pas. form, was loved, — pas. part, and teas, 

wast, were. 

Com. form, shall love, — inf. and shall, shalt, 

will, wilt. 
Prog, form, shall he loving, — inf. of be, and 

pres. part, with shall, shalt, will, ivilt. 
Pas. form, shall be loved, — inf. of be, and 

pas. part, with shall, shalt, will, wilt. 

Com. form, have loved, — past part, and have, 

hadst, has. 
Prog, form, have been loving, — past part. 

been, and pres. part, with have, hast, has. 
Pas. form, have been loved, — past part, been, 

and pas. part, with have, hast, has. 

Com. form, had loved, — past part, and had, 

hadst. 
Piog. form, had been loving, — past part, been, 

and pres. part, with had, hadst. 
Pas. form, had been loved, — past part, been, 

and pas. part, with had, hadst. 

Com. form, shall have loved, — inf. of have, 

and past part, with shall, shalt, will, wik. 
Prog, form, shall have been loving, — inf. of 

have, past part, of been, and pres. part. 

with shall, shalt, trill, tcilt. 
Pas. form, xli'tll have been loved, — inf. <>f 

have, unci past part, been, and pas. part. 

with thall, shalt, trill, wilt 



Formation of tonses. 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. In the potential mode they combine as follows — 



(a.) Ab3. i 



Past. 



r Com. form, may love, — inf. and may, mayst, 

can, canst, must. 
Prog, form, may be loving, — inf. of be, and 

pres. part, with may, mayst, can, canst, 

must. 
Pas. form, may be loved, — inf. of be and 

pas. part, with may, mayst, can, canst, 

must. 

r Com. form, might love, — inf. and might, 
mightst, could, couldst, should, shouldst, 
toould, icouldst. 

Prog, form, might be loving, — inf. of be, and 
pres. part, with might, mightst, could, 
couldst, would, wouldst, should, shouldst. 

Pas. form, might be loved, — inf. of be, and 
pas. part, with might, mightst, could, 
couldst, would, wouldst, should, shouldst. 



(b.) Rel. tenses. 



Pres. perf. 



Past perf. 



Com. form, may have loved, — inf. of have, 

and past part, with may, mayst, can, canst, 

must. 
Prog, form, may have been loving, inf. of 

have, past part, been, and pres. part, with 

may, mayst, can, canst, must. 
Pas. form, may have been loved, — inf. of have, 

past part, been, and pas. part, with may, 

mayst, can, canst, must. 

Com. form, might have loved, — inf. of have, 
and past part, with might, mightst, could, 
couldst, icould, wouldst, should, shouldst. 

Prog, form, might have been loving, — inf. of 
have, past part, been, and pres. part, with 
might, mightst, could, couldst, should, 
shouldst, icould, wouldst. 

Pas. form, might have been loved, — inf. of 
have, past part, been, and pas. part, with 
might, mightst, coidd, couldst, should, 
shouldst, would, ivouldst. 



4. With the exception of the distinctive form in the present and 
past (107, 5, 6), the subjunctive mode has the same tense-forms as the 
indicative or potential, with if, unless, though, &c, prefixed; as, " If I 
love." " If I may love." 



Formation of tenses. Tense-forms in the subjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 103 

5. The imperative mode has but one tense, the present, which is used 
generally without the subject expressed, and in all the four forms of the 
verb; as, Study; be thou studying ; be thou loved; do write. 

6. The infinitive mode has two tenses — the present and the perfect. 
The present is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive forms 
of the verb, and is formed by prefixing "to" to the simple verb for the 
common form, — " to be" to the present participle for the progressive 
form, and "to be" to the passive participle for the passive form; as, to 
write, to be writing, to be written. 

The perfect is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive forms 
of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to have to the past participle of 
the verb for the common form, — to have been to the present participle for 
the progressive form, — and to have been to the passive participle for the 
passive form: as, to have written; to have been writing; to have been 
written. 

7. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple verb ; 
as, writing. 

The past participle is formed for regular verbs by adding ed to the 
simple verb (25, 3) ; as, honored. 

The perfect participle is formed by prefixing having to the past parti- 
ciple of the verb for the common form, — having been to the present parti- 
ciple for the progressive form, — and having been to the passive participle 
for the passive form; as, having written; having been writing; having 
been written. 

116. Number and Person of the Verb. 

1. The number and person of the verb are properties which 
show its agreement with the subject. Like the subject, the verb 
has two numbers and three persons. 

2. The first person singular, and the first, second, and third persons 
plural, of the present tense indicative, in all verbs (am, are, teas, were, 
excepted) are alike. The second person singular is like the first, except 
in the solemn or ancient style, when it is formed by adding st, or est, 
tc the first person; as, "Thou lovest me not." The third person singu- 
lar is formed from the first, by adding 5 or es ; in ancient style it ends 
in eth : as, " He goeth." Verbs ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
change y into /, and add es, to form the third person singular; as, try, 
tries. 

3. By a figure of enallage (236, 8), the second person plural of the pro- 
noun and verb is substituted, in conversational and familial style, for 

Tense-forms in the imperative — infinitive. Formation of present participle 

— past. part. — p'erf. part. Number and person. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the second person singular; as, "Hubert, you are sad" = Hubert, thou 
art sad. 

4. The imperative mode has usually only the second person ; as, Go, 
thou." In some languages, the imperative has also a form for the first 
person plural, and third person singular and plural. A few examples 
seem to occur in English; as, "Rise, thy bons." "Be it decreed." 
Most of these cases, however, can be explained by supplying an ellip- 
sis ; as, " Let thy sons rise." "Let it be decreed." 



117. Conjugation. 

1. The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of its 
several modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and per sons. 

2. The only tenses which change their termination are the present 
and past; as, sit, sittest, sits; sat, s&ttest , tarry, tarriest, tarries; tarried, 
tarriedst. All other changes are made by means of auxiliaries. 

3. In adding s or es, observe the same rules as in the formation of the 
plural of nouns ; as, play, plays ; fly, flies ; go, goes. So, also, observe 
the rules (25) for the changes of the radical verb; as, drop, dropped 
(Rule I.) ; reply, replied (Rule III.). 

4. The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative, 
the past indicative, and the past participle. 





EXAMPLES. 




Present. 


Past 


Past Participle. 


Explain, 


explained, 


explained. 


Rely, 


relied, 


relied. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 



118. Exercise. 

1. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: — 

Sail, smile, see, shut, close, open, burn, glaze, gild, turn, try, reform, 
renew, take, leave, make, build, hope, fold, alter, correct. 

2. Study the following Models : — 

" Thou hast gone to thy rest." 
Hast gone . is a verb — it expresses being, action, or state ; irregular — it 

Conjugation. Change of termination. Principal parts. Models. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 105 

does not form its past tense and past participle by adding 
ed ; — principal parts — pres. go, past, went, past part, gone; — 
intransitive — it does not require an object to complete the 
meaning ; common form — it represents an act as completed 
without reference to its progress ; indicative mode — it asserts 
a thing as actual; — present perfect tense — it expresses an 
action completed in present time ; — second person, singular 
number, to agree with its subject thou. 

Abbreviated form : — 
Hast gone . is an irreg. intransitive verb, — go, went, gone, indicative 
mode, present perfect tense, 2d person, sing, number, to agree 
with its subject thou. Or, for the slate, thus : — is a V. ir. 
int. ind. — pres. perf. — 2d per. sing. 

3. In the folio icing examples explain the verbs in the same manner : — 
We read of that philosophy, which can smile over the destruction of 
property, of that religion, which enables its possessor to extend the 
benign look of forgiveness and complacency to his murderers ; but it is 
not in the soul of man to bear the lacerations of slander. 

" Lord, and what shall this man do ?" 
Ask'st thou, Christian, for thy friend ? 

If his love for Christ be true, 

Christ hath told thee of his end ; — 

This is he whom God approves, 

This is he whom Jesus loves. — Keble. 

And the raven never' flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting 
On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door ; 

And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, 

And the lamplight o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor, 

And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor, 
Shall be lifted — nevermore ! — E. A. Poe. 

119. Conjugation of the verb TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, We are, 

2. Thou art, (Ye or) You are, 

3. He is ; They are. 

Conjugation of to be. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, You have been, 

3. He has been ; They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, We were, 

2. Thou wast, You were, 

3. He was ; They were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, You had been, 

3. He had been ; They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been, We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; They shall or will have been. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, You may be, 

3. He may be ; They may be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; They may have been. 

Conjugation of to be. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 107 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, You might be, 

3. He might be ; They might be. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, If we are, 

2. If thou art, If you are, 

3. If he is ; If they are. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been, If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been, If you have been, 

3. If he has been ; If they have been. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was, If we were, 

2. If thou wast, If you were, 

3. If he was ; If they were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been, If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, If you had been, 

3. If he had been ; If they had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be, If we shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, If you shall or will be, 

3. If he shall or will be ; If they shall or will be. 

Conjugation of to be. 



108 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will have been, 

3. If he shall or will have been ; If they shall or will have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Subjunctive form.) 

Note. — Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has another in the 
present and past, peculiar to itself. 



Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

If we be, 
If you be, 
If they be. 



1. If I were, 

2. Ifthouwert, 

3. If he were ; 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

If we were, 
If you were, 
If they were. 



Singular. 

Be, or Be thou ; 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

Be ye or you. 



Present Tense. 
Present Perfect. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

To be. 

To have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 

Note. — Synopsis is a short view of the verb, showing its forms through 
the m<5des and tenses in a single number and person, thus : In the first per- 
son singular, we have, Ind. Pres. I am ; Pres. Per. I have been ; Past, I was ; 



Conjugation of to be. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 



109 



Past Per/. I had been j Fut. I shall be ; Put. Per. I shall have been. Pot. 
Pres. I may be ; Pres. Per. I may have been j Past, I might be ) Past. Per/. 
I might have been. Sub. Pres. If I am, &c. 

120. Exercise. 

1. In what mode and tense are the following verbs ? — 

I am. He has been. If I were. You can be. He might be. To 
have been. They were. He will have been. You might be. She had 
been. You will be. To be. I must have been. Thou art. If he be. 
If you are. They might have been. We were. I had been. Thou ' 
wast. He is. 

2. Give a synopsis o/ to be, in the Ind. second person singular, — sec. 
per. plur., — first per. plur., — third per. sing., — third per. plur. Pot. 
third per. sing. — sec. per. plur. — third per. plur. Sub. sec. per. sing., 
— sec. per. plur. — third per. plur. — first per. plur. 

121. Conjugation of the regular verb TO LOVE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 







PRESENT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I love, 


We love, 


2. 


Thou lovest, 


You love, 


3. 


He loves ; 


They love. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Plural. 

1. I have loved, We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 
They have loved. 



3. He has loved ; 



Singular. 
1. I loved, 
2. . Thou lovedst, 
3. He loved ; 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 
We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; They had loved. 



Conjugation of to love. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; They shall or will love. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have loved, "We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, You shall or will have loved. 
S. He shall or will have loved ; They shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, You may love, 

3. He may love ; They may love. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, You may have loved, 
2. He may have loved ; They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, You might love, 

3. He might love ; They might love. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Regular form.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, If you love, 

3. If he loves ; If they love. 

Conjugation of to love. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 



Ill 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved, If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; If they have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

If we loved, 
If you loved, 
If they loved. 



1 If I loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 

3. If he loved ; 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; If they had loved. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If I shall or will love, If we shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, If you shall or will love, 

3. If he shall or will love ; If they shall or will love. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
Plural. 

If we shall or will have loved, 
If you shall or will have loved, 
If they shall or will have loved. 



1. If I shall or will have loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, 

3. If he shall or will have loved ; 



subjunctive MODE. (Subjunctive form.} 



Singular. 

1. If I love, 

2. If thou love, 

3. If he love ; 



Singular. 

1. If I loved, 

2. If thou loved, 

3. If he loved; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

If we love, 
If you love, 
If they love. 

TAST TENSE. 

Plural 

If we loved, 
If you loved, 
If they loved. 



Conjugation of to love. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Love, or love thou ; Love, or Love you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; They are loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; They were loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 

Conjugation of to love. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 113 

FUTUKE PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been loved, We shall or will have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, You shall or will have been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been loved ; They shall or will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; They may be loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved, We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; They might be loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved, We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Regular form.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am loved, If we are loved, 

2. If thou art loved, If you are loved, 

3. If he is loved ; If they are loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, If we have boon loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, If you have been lored, 

3. If he has been loved; If they have boon loved. 

Conjugation of to love. 
II 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wast loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he was loved ; If they were loved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved ; If they had been loved. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be loved, If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved, If you shall or will be loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved ; If they shall' or will be loved. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been loved, If we shall or will have been loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been loved, If you shall or will have been loved, 

3. If he shall or will have been loved ; If they shall or will have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Subjunctive form.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plieral. 

1. If I be loved, If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved ; If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Be loved, or Be thou loved ; Be loved, or Be you loved. 



Conjugation of to love. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 115 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Past (passive). Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 

122. Interrogative and Negative Forms. 

1. A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and potential 
modes, by placing the subject after it, or after the first auxiliary ; as, 
Ind. Do I love ? Have I loved ? Did I love ? Had I loved ? Shall 1 
love ? Shall I have loved ? Pot. Can I love ? Can I have loved ? &c. 

2. A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not after it, 
or after the first auxiliary ; but the negative adverb should be placed 
before the infinitive and participles ; as, Ind. I love not, or I do not 
love. I have not loved. I loved not, or I did not love. I had not 
loved,, &c. Inf. Not to love. Not to have loved. Part. Not loving. 
Not loved. Not having loved. 

3. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative 
and potential modes, by placing the subject, and the adverb not, after 
the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, Love I not ? or Do I not love ? 
Have I not loved ? Did I not love ? Had I not loved ? &c. 



123. Exercise. 

1. Tell the mode, tense, voice, number, and person of the following verbs : — 

She has loved. I might love. We had loved. We had been loved. 
He may have loved. If I be loved. I love. He -will love. He shall 
have loved. I have loved. They shall have loved. She is loved. We 
may be loved. You might have been loved. If I love. If they love. 
They may love. We will love. I had loved. Thou hast loved. Thou 
wilt have loved. I love. Thou art loved. He was loved. She will 
have been loved. 

2. Write or repeat a full conjugation of the following verbs: — 
Believe, defy, think. 

3. Conjugate the first of the above verbs interrogatively, the tUXt ivjadvcly, 
and the third interrogatively and negatively. 

Verbs conjugated interrogatively and negatively. 



116 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in either form, in the first, 
second, or third person. 

124. Synopsis— Progressive and Emphatic Forms— Verb Read. 

Note. — The progressive form is the verb to be joined to the present parti- 
ciple. The pupil should be careful not to mistake this for the passive form, 
which is the verb to be joined to the passive participle. In the emphatic form 
the auxiliary do is added to the simple verb for the present, and did for the 
past. It is found only in the indicative and imperative modes. 

Ind. I am reading, I have been reading, I was reading, I had been 
reading, I shall be reading, I shall have been reading. Pox. I may be 
reading, I may have been reading, I might be reading, I might have 
been reading. Sub. If I am or be reading, if I have been reading, if 
I was or were reading, if I had been reading, if I shall be reading, if I 
shall have been reading. Imp. Be thou reading. Inf. To be reading, 
to have been reading. Part. Reading, having been reading. 

Indicative. I do read, I did read. Imperative. Do thou read. 



125. Exercise. 

1. Write or repeat a full conjugation of write, lend, play, in the progres- 
sive form. 

2. Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in the second and third per- 
sons, singular and plural. 

3. Tell the difference between the progressive and passive forms. (See Note 
above.) 



126. Forms for each division of time combined. 

THE VERB TO MAKE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



1st Sing. 
I 

1. Indef. make, 

2. Prog, incomp. am making, 

3. Comp. have made, 

4. Prog. comp. have been making. 

5. Ind. emp. do make, 

6. Pas. ind. am made, 

7. Pas. prog. , 

8. Pas. comp. ljave been made, 



PRESENT TENSE. 
2d Sing. 
Thou 
makest, 
art making, 
hast made, 
hast been making, 
dost make, 
art made, 



hast been made, 



3d Sing. 
He, She, It, 
makes, 
is making, 
has made, 
has been making, 
does make, 
is made, 
is making, 
has been made. 



Synopsis of the Progressive and Emphatic Forms. All the forms combined. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 



117 



1st Plur. 
We 



1. Indef. make, 

2. Prog, incomp. are making. 



3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



have made, 
have been making, 
do make, 
are made, 

have been made, 



2d Plur. 
Ye or You 
make, 

are making, 
have made, 
have been making, 
do make, 
are made, 

have been made, 



3d Plur. 
They 
make. 

are making, 
have made, 
have been making, 
do make, 
are made, 
are making, 
have been made. 



1st Sing. 



1. Indef. made, 

2. Prog, incomp. was making, 



3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
was made, 

had been made, 



PAST TENSE. 

2d Sing. 
Thou 
madest, 
wast making, 
hadst made, 
hadst been making, 
didst make, 
wast made, 

hadst been made, 



3d Sing. 
He, She, It, 
made. 

was making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
was made, 
was making, 
had been made. 



1st Plur. 
We 

1. Indef. made, 

2. Prog, incomp. were making, 



3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made, 

had been made, 



2d Plur. 
Ye or You 
made, 

were making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made, 

had been made, 



They 
made. 

were making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made. , 
were making, 
had been made. 



1st Sing. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



2d Sing. 



3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



3d Sing. 



Tnou He, She, It, 

1, Indef. will make, wilt make, will make. 

2. Prog, incomp. will be making, wilt be making, will be making. 



will have made, wilt have made, will have made. 

will have been making, wilt have been making, will have bean making. 



will have been made, wilt have boon made, 



will b<> made. 
will be making. 
will have b*eu made. 



All the forms combined. 



118 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp. 

3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



1st Plur. 

We 

■will make, 

will be making, 

will have made, 

■will have been making, will have been making, will have been making. 

will be made, will be made, 

will have been made, will have been made, 



2d Plur. 

Ye or You 

will make, 

will be making, 

will have made, 



3d Plur. 
They 

will make, 
will be making, 
will have made. 



will be made, 
will be making, 
will have been made. 



127. Irregular Verbs. 

1 An irregular verb is one which does not form its past tense 
and past participle by adding ed to the present tense ; as ; see, 
saw, seen; write, wrote, written. 

1. The" following list contains the principal parts of the irregular 
verbs. Those verbs which are marked R. have also the regular forms, 
and those which are italicized are either obsolete or are becoming so : — 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Am, 


Was, 


Been. 


Arise, 


Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 


Awoke, r. 


Awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth), 


Bore, bare, 


Born. 


Bear (to carry). 


Bore, bare, 


Borne. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Bend, 


Bent, R. 


Bent, r. 


Bereave, 


Bereft, 


Bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 


Bid, bade, 


Bidden, bid. 


Bind, Un- 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 


Broke, brake, 


Broken, broke. 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, Re- 


Built, r. 


Built, r. 


Burn, 


Burnt, r. 


Burnt, r. 


Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 


Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 


Caught, R. 


Caught, r. 


Chide, * 


Chid, 


Chidden, chid. 



List of Irregular verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS—IRREGULAR. 



119 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave (to adhere), 


Cleaved, clave, 


Cleaved. 


Cleave (to split), 


Clove, cleft, clave, 


Cleft, cloven, R. 


Cling, 


Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 


Clad, r. 


Clad, r. 


Come, Be-, 


Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 


Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 


Crept, 


Crept. 


Crow, 


Crew, R. 


Crowed. 


Cut, 


Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


Durst, 


Dared. 


Dare (to challenge), is R. 


Dared, 


Dared. 


Deal, 


Dealt, r. 


Dealt, R. 


Dig, 


Dug, R. 


Dug, R. 


Do, Mis-, Un~, Oat-, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 


Dreamt, R. 


Dreamt, r. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven, 


Dwell, 


Dwelt, r. 


Dwelt, r. 


Eat, 


Ate, eat, 


Eaten. 


Fall, Be-, 


Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 


Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 


Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 


Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forget, 


Forgot, 


Forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 


Freighted, 


Fraught, r. 


Get, Be-, For-, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 


Gilt, r. 


Gilt, r. 


Gird, Be-, En-, 


Girt, r. 


Girt, r. 


Give, For-, Mis-, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, En-, 


Graved, 


Graven, r. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang (to take life, n.) 


Hung, 


Hun-. 


Have, 


Had, 


11a. 1. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Hoard. 


Heave, 


Hove, r. 


Hovcn, R. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 


Jk\vn,*R. 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit, 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Hold, Be-, With-, 


Held, 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kneel, 


Knelt, r. 


Knit, 


Knit, r. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Lade, to load (to dip, 


r.), Laded, 


Lay, 


Laid, 


Lead, Mis-, 


Led, 


Leave, 


Left, 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Let, 


Let, 


Lie (to recline), 


Lay, 


Light, 


Lit, R. 


Load, 


Loaded, 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Make, 


Made, 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meet, 


Met, 


Mow, 


Mowed, 


Pay, Re-, 


Paid, 


Pen (to enclose), 


Pent, R. 


Put, 


Put, 


Quit, 


Quit, R. 


Read, 


Read, 


Rend, 


Rent, 


Rid, 


Rid, 


Ride, 


Rode, rid, 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, 


Rise, A-, 


Rose, 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Rot, 


Rotted, 


Run, 


Ran, run, 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Say, 


Said, 


See, 


Saw, 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Seethe, 


Sod, r. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Send, 


Sent, 


Set, Be-, 


Set, 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shape, Mis-, 


Shaped, 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shear, 


Sheared, 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shine, 


Shone, r. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shoot, 


Shot, 



Past Participle. 

Held, holden. 

Hurt. 

Kept. 

Knelt, r. 

Knit, r. 

Known. 

Laden. 

Laid. 

Led. 

Left. 

Lent. 

Let. 

Lain. 

Lit, r. 

Laden, r. 

Lost. 

Made. 

Meant. 

Met. 

Mown, r. 

Paid. 

Pent, r. 

Put. 

Quit, r. 

Read. 

Rent. 

Rid. 

Ridden, rid. 

Rung. 

Risen. 

Riven, r. 

Rotten, r. 

Run. 

Sawn, r. 

Said. 

Seen. 

Sought. 

Sodden, R. 

Sold. 

Sent. 

Set. 
, Shaken. 

Shapen, r. 

Shaven, r. 

Shorn, r. 

Shed. 

Shone, r. 

Shod. 

Shot. 



ETYINIOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 



121 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


SllOW, 


Showed, 


Shown. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk. 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 


Sang, sung, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sunk, sanJc, 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


Slung, slang, 


Slung. 


Slink, 


Slunk, 


Slunk. 


Slit, R, 


Slit, 


Slit, r. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten, smit. 


Sow (to scatter), 


Sowed, 


Sown, r. 


Speak, Be-, 


Spoke, spake, 


Spoken. 


Speed, 


Sped, 


Sped. 


Spell, 


Spelt, r. 


Spelt, r. 


Spend, Mis-, 


Spent, 


Spent. 


Spill, 


Spilt, r. 


Spilt," R. 


Spin, 


Spun, span, 


Spun. 


Spit, Be-, 


Spit, spat, 


Spit. 


Split, 


Split, 


Split. 


Spread, Be-, 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprang, sprung, 


Sprung. 


Stand, With-, <fcc, 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 


Stung. 


Stride, 


Strode, strid, 


Stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Struck, stricken. 


String, 


Strung, 


Strung. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 


Strow, or Strew, Be-, 


Strowed or strewed, 


Strown, strewn. 


Swear, 


Swore, 8ware, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat, r. 


Sweat, r. 


Sweep, 


Swept, 


Swept. 


Swell, 


Swelled, 


Swollen, u. 


Swim, 


Swam, swum, 


Swum. 


Swing, 


Swung, 


Swung. 


Take, Be-, &c, 


Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, Mi*-, lie-, 


Taught, 


Taught 


Tear, 


Tore, tm-f, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, Be-, 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Thrive, 


Throve, n. 


Thriven, r. 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, 


Trodden, trod. 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Past. 


Past Participle. 


Waxed, 


Waxen, it. 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Wove, 


Woven. 


Wept, 


Wept. 


Wet, R. 


Wet, R. 


Whet, r. 


Whet, r. 


Won, 


Won. 


Wound, R. 


Wound. 


Wrought, r. 


Wrought, R. 


Wrung, r. 


Wrung. 


Wrote, 


Written. 


128. Exercise. 





Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



1. Give the past and past participle of teach, sing, write, read, hurt, sit, 
arise, take, beat, tell, &c, &c. 

2. Give the present and past for the following past participles: — Thrown, 
sworn, swum, built, spoken, stolen, &c, &c. 

3. Correct the following examples, and give the number and person of 
each : — 

The blossoms have fell from the trees. Mary come to school in haste. 
Sarah's exercise is wrote badly. The thief stoled the money and tolled 
a falsehood about it. The lake is froze hard. Charles has took the 
wrong course. The bell ringed loud. The soldiers fit bravely. She 
did not git the premium. The exercise is wrote badly. James has not 
spoke the truth. A sad misfortune has befell him. The carriage was 
drawed by four horses. Being weary I laid down and ris much re- 
freshed. The ball was throwed too high. I see the soldiers when they 
come. The wind has blowed the fruit from the trees, and broke the 
branches. He sit down upon the bank. The cattle were drove to pas- 
ture. After he had strove many times he winned the prize. The bee 
Ftinged Nellie badly. Edwin has took my knife. The sky has wore a 
cloudy aspect for several days. She singed the song well. The cars 
have ran off the track. Grandmother has wcaved the cloth beautifully. 
Who teached him grammar ? These apples have growed very fast. He 
clinged to the mast. He give me some money. Anna stringed the 
beads quickly. The vessel has hove in sight. She springed a leak. 
The stone smit him in the face. The river has overflown its banks, 
seen Harry when he done it. 

129. Defective Verbs. 
1. Defective verbs are those in which some of the principal 
parts are wanting. 



Defective verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERES — DEFECTIVE — IMPERSONAL. 1 2o 

2. They are may, can, shall, and icill, which have the past 
tense, but no participles ; must, and ought, which have neither a 
past tense nor participles; quoth, which has neither a present 
tense nor participles. 

3. When must refers to past time, it is used in the present perfect 
tense; as, " He must have left." When ought refers to past time, it is 
followed by the perfect infinitive; as, " He ought to have written." 

4. Quoth is now seldom used. Beware {be ware or wary) is used mostly 
in the imperative mode; as, "Beware of dogs." 

130. Impersonal Verbs. 

1. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is 
asserted independently of any particular subject; as, "It rains." 
" It snows." 

2. Methinks, mcthought, meseems, meseemed, may be regarded as imper- 
sonal, or rather unipersonal verbs. They are equivalent to / think, I 
thought, It seems, it seemed to me. 

131. Exercise. 

1. Study the following models for parsing the verb: — 
(Full form.) 

(1.) Give the part of speech, and tell why 

(2.) Tell whether it is regular or irregular, and why. 

(3.) Give the principal parts. 

(4.) Tell whether it is transitive or intransitive, and why. 

(5.) " the voice and form, and why 

(6.) " mode, and why. 

(7.) " tense, and why. 

(8.) Inflect the tense. 

(9.) Tell the number and person, and why. 
' (10.) Give the rule. 
(Abbreviated form.) 

(1.) It is a regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive verb, (if 
transitive) active or passive form. 
(2.) Principal parts. 
(3.) Mode. 
(4.) Tense. 

(o.) Number and person. 
(G.) Construction and rule. 

jritfit and oiKjht denoting past time. Quoth. Impersonal verbs. Models 
for parsing. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

2. "Sarah lias written a letter." 

Has written ... is a verb (why ?) ; principal parts (pres. write, past wrote, 
past part, written) ; transitive (why ?) ; active voice (why ?) ; 
common form (why?); indicative mode (why?); present 
perfect tense; — it is formed by prefixing havf, which both 
denotes present time and is the sign of completion, to 
the past participle written, which denotes completion — 
(I have written, thou hast written, he has written; we have 
toritten, you have written, they have written) ; third person, 
singular number, to agree with its subject Sarah, accord- 
ing to Rule IV. : " The verb must agree with its subject 
in number and person." 

3. "She can play." 

Can play is a verb (why?); regular (why?); principal parts; 

intransitive (why?); common form (why?); potential 
mode (why?) ; present tense (why?); (analyze and inflect 
it) third person, singular number (why?). Rule IV. 

4. "America was discovered by Columbus." 

Was discovered . is a regular transitive verb, passive voice — or simply a 
regular passive verb — the subject is represented as acted 
upon; {discover, discovered, discovered,) indicative mode 
(why ?) ; past tense (why ?) ; (analyze (114, 3) and inflect 
it), third person, singular number, and agrees with its 
subject, America, according to Rule IV. 

5. "Hove to see the sun shine." 

To see is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, &c, infinitive 

mode (why ?) : present tense, and limits love, according to 
Rule XVI. : " The infinitive has the construction of the 
noun," &c. 

Shine is an irregular intransitive verb (shine, shone, shone), 

infinitive mode, present tense, and limits see. 

6. " If they were reading the book." 

Were reading . . is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, progressive form 
(why ?) subjunctive mode (why ?), &c. 

7. "Has he come V* 

Has come .... is an irregular intransitive verb, common form (conjugated 
interrogatively), &c. 

Models for parsing. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS IMPERSONAL. 125 

8. Add an object, and change the following transitive verbs from the active 
to the passive voice: — 

Mary loved. They read. Henry lost. The children played. Augus- 
tus threw. Anna found. He rowed. Hear. The father punished. 
Jane broke. Give. Will you lend ? Thus : Mary loved the truth = 
The truth was loved by Mary. 



9. Change the following transitive verbs from the passive to the active form, 
and supply a subject when it is omitted: — - 

America was discovered in 1492. Religious liberty was established 
in Rhode Island. The Magna Charta was granted to the English. The 
Mexicans were defeated at Buena Vista. The king was concealed in 
the tree. The retreat of the Greeks was conducted very skilfully. A 
great battle was fought at Marathon. The gunpowder plot was disco- 
vered. King Charles was restored to the throne in 1660. Paradise 
Lost was written by Milton. The Messiah was written by a distin- 
guished poet. Thus : Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. 



10. Parse the verbs in the following examples ; also the nouns, adjec- 
tives, pronouns and participles : — 

In August, even, not a breeze can stir but it thrills us with the breath 
of autumn. A pensive glory is seen in the far, golden gleams, among 
the shadows of the trees. — Hawthorne, 

Reproach did not spare Braddock, even in his grave. Still his daunt- 
less conduct on the field of battle shows him to have been a man of 
fearless spirit ; and he was universally allowed to be an accomplished 
disciplinarian. Whatever may have been his faults and errors, he expi- 
ated them by the hardest lot that can befall a brave soldier, ambitious 
of renown — an unhonored grave in a strange land ; a memory clouded 
by misfortune, and a name for ever coupled with defeat. — Irving. 



Now, by the skies above us, and by our fathers' graves. 
Be men to-day, Quiritcs, — or be forever slaves ! — Macaulay. 

Many a night from yonder ivied casement, ere I went \o rest, 

Did I look on great Orion, sloping slowly to the wost. 

Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising through the mellow shade, 

Glitter like a swarm of hre-ilics tangled in a silver braid. — Tuvv/son. 

Models fur par.- in;;. 



126 ENGLISH QjfeAMMAR. 

ADVERBS. 

132. Definition. 

1. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, 
adjective, participle, or other adverb ; as, " He learns quickly." 

2. When an idea, however expressed, is put in such relation to a verb, 
an adjective, a participle, or an adverb, as to represent some circumstance 
of place, time, cause, or manner, it is adverbial, because it is placed in an 
adverbial relation in the sentence. The same idea placed in relation to 
a noun or pronoun is of the nature of an adjective; as, "He "who acts 
uprightly, is an upright man." 

3. When an adverbial idea is expressed by a single word, that word 
is called an adverb ; as, "He walks sloivly." The relation is determined 
either by the termination, the position, or the meaning. "When the idea 
is expressed by a noun, the relation is expressed by a preposition ; as, 
"The affair was managed with prudence" = prudently. In this case the 
phrase, consisting of the preposition and noun, is said to be adverbial. 
When the idea is expressed by a proposition, the relation is expressed 
by a conjunctive adverb. Here the clause, consisting of a connective, 
subject, and predicate, is adverbial ; as, " Speak so that you can be under- 
stood' ' = distinctly. 

4. Words properly called adverbs are abridged expressions. They 
take the place of phrases consisting of a preposition and noun ; as, 
"He lived there" = in that place. "He conducted wisely" = in a ivise 
manner. 

5. Sometimes an adverb seems to qualify a noun, and thereby to par- 
take of the nature of an adjective ; as, " I found the boy only." 

6. Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase, or an entire proposition ; 
as, " Far from home." " The old man likewise came to the city." 

133. Exercise. 

1. Point out the adverbs in the following sentences: — 

She sang sweetly. The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. 0, 
lightly, lightly tread. The storm raged fearfully. When shall I see 
you again? They lived very happily. They were agreeably disap- 
pointed. Do you expect them to-morrow? She is continually changing 
her mind. It cannot be true. Perhaps I shall go. Doubtless it is 
true. George writes elegantly. 

2. Insert the following adverbs in sentences of your own: — 

Where, hopefully, soon, bravely, yes, surely, undeniably, sorrowfully, 
briefly, quite, below, above, ever, constantly, so, yet, although, no. 

Adverbs. Expressions in an adverbial relation. A sintrle word — a phrase 
— a clause. Adverbs equivalent to phrases. Adverbs used as adjectives. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — CLASSES. 127 

134. Classes of Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs may be divided into four general classes — adverbs 
of place, of time, of cause, of manner. 

2. Adverbs of place answer the questions Where? Whither? Whence? 
as, here, there, above, yonder, below, somewhere, back, upwards, down- 
wards, &c. 

3. Adverbs of time answer the questions When ? How long ? How 
often ? as, then, yesterday, always, continually, often, frequently, &c. 

4. Adverbs of cause answer the questions Why ? Wherefore ? as, why, 
wherefore, therefore, then. 

5. Causal relations are commonly expressed by phrases and clauses. 

6. Adverbs of manner and degree answer the question How ? as, ele- 
gantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are generally derived from adjectives 
denoting quality. 

7. Under the head of degree may be classed those which answer the 
question How? in respect to quantity or quality ; as, HowwwcA? How 
good? &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, wholly, totally, 
quite, exceedingly. 

8. Modal adverbs, or those which show the manner of the assertion, 
belong to this class also. The following are the principal modal adverbs : 
yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, certainly, no, 
nay, not, possibly, probably, perhaps, per adventure, perchance. 

9. The adverbs when, where, why, how, &c, when used in asking ques- 
tions, are called interrogative adverbs; as, "When did he come?" 

10. Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives by adding 
ly ; as, bright, bright-///; smooth, smooth-/?/. But when the adjective 
ends in ly, the phrase is commonly used; as, "In a lovely manner, - ' 
instead of lovelily. 

11. There is used as an expletive to introduce a sentence when the 
verb to be denotes existence; as, " Thert are many men of the same 
opinion." It is also sometimes used with the verbs seem, appear, come, 
go, and others ; as, " There went out a decree from Cjesar Augustus." 
In this use it has no meaning. 

12. The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some preceding 
word or group of words; as, "He is in good business, and is likely to 
remain so." 

135. Conjunctive Adverbs. 
1. Conjunctive adverbs arc those -which express the adverbial 

- of adverbs — plaoe — time — cause — manner — degree. Modal adverbs. 
Interrogative adverbs. There as an expletive. The adverb w. Conjunctive 
adverbs. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

relation of a dependent clause, and connect it with the verb, 
adjective, or adverb, which it modifies; as, "I shall meet my 
friend when the boat arrives." 

2. The principal conjunctive adverbs will be found under the head of 
connectives (143, 18). They are equivalent to two phrases, the one 
containing a relative pronoun, the other its antecedent ; as, " The lilies 
grow where the ground is moist" = The lilies grow in that place in which 
the ground is moist. Here the phrase in that place modifies groics, and 
the phrase in which modifies moist; hence where, the equivalent of the 
two, modifies both. 

3. The words therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, then, note, 
besides, likewise, also, too, moreover, and some others, are adverbs, and at 
the same time are used — either alone or when associated with other 
connectives, to join propositions. But unlike conjunctive adverbs, they 
connect coordinate and not subordinate clauses. 

136. Exercise. 

1. Tell the class of the following adverbs: — 

Very, greatly, perhaps, therefore, below, to-morrow, when, there, 
purely, truly, always, continually, yesterday, why, sorrowfully, pain- 
fully, down, above, here, vainly, exceedingly. 

2. Point out the conjunctive adverbs in the following examples: — 

He will be prepared when the time arrives. She may return when- 
ever she wishes. He disobeyed the rule, although he knew it was 
wrong. Whither I go ye cannot come. I mourn because I have lost 
my friend. 

137. Comparison of Adverbs. 

1. Many adverbs, especially those denoting manner, admit 
of comparison ; as, brightly, more brightly, most brightly ; noon, 
sooner, soonest. 

2. When an adjective undergoes comparison, it shows that two or more 
objects are compared ; but when an adverb undergoes the same change, 
it shows that two or more actions or qualities are compared; as, "James 
speaks more fluently than George [speaks]." 

3. The following adverbs are compared irregularly : III or badly, 
worse, worst; little, less, least ; far, farther, farthest ; much, more, most; 
well, better, best. 

Conjunctive adverbs equivalent to two phrases. The adverbs therefore, Ac. 
Comparison of adverbs. Irregular comparison. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — EXERCISE. 1 2D 

133. Exercise. 

1. Study the following outline for parsing adverbs: — ■ 
To parse an adverb, tell, — 

(1.) Vfhat part of speech it is, and 'why. 

(2.) Compare it (where it admits of it), and tell what degree. 

(3.) Tell what it modifies. 

(4. ) Give the rule. 

2. " The sun shines brightly" 

Brightly is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it is 

compared (positive brightly, comparative more brightly, 
superlative most brightly) ; it is in the positive degree, and 
modifies the verb shines, according to Rule IX. (Re- 
peat it.) 

3. "Mary writes more elegantly than her brother." 

More elegantly . is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it is 
compared {elegantly, more elegantly, most elegantly) ; it is 
in the comparative degree, and modifies the verb writes, 
according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) 

4. "I will go whenever you wish." 

Whenever .... is a conjunctive adverb of time. ("Why ?) 

(1.) As an adverb it modifies both will go and wish, 

according to Rule IX. 

(2.) As a connective it connects the subordinate clause 

" whenever you wish" to will go. Rule XL 

5. Parse the adverbs in the following examples ; also the adjectives, 
verbs, and pronouns : — 

No human fancy can take in this mighty space in all its grandeur, 
and in all its immensity ; can sweep the outer boundaries of such a 
creation ; or lift itself up to the majesty of that great and invisible arm, 
on which all is suspended. — Chalmers. 

He (Sir Thomas More) stands unchangeably on the centre of eternal 
right ; his head, majestically erect, gloriously lifted up to heaven, bends 
not before the shock, and his breast receives the tempest only to shiver 
it. — Giles. 

Hitherto shalt thou come, and no further, and here shall thy proud 
waves be stayed. 

Models for parsing. 

I 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, — 

This is my own, my native land ! 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned, 

From wandering on a foreign strand ? — Scott. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

139. Definition. 

1. A Reposition is a word used to show the relation of a noun or 
pronoun to some other word ; as, " The ship was seen from the 
citadel." " He sailed upon the ocean in a ship of war." 

2. The preposition always shows a relation between two terms, an 
antecedent and a subsequent. The subsequent term is called the object of 
the preposition. The preposition and object united form a dependent 
element of the sentence, having the antecedent term as its principal 
element. 

8. The preposition always shows a relation of dependence. When 
the antecedent term is a noun, the dependent phrase is of the nature of 
an adjective ; as, " The rays of the sun" = solar rays. 

When the antecedent term is a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, 
the dependent phrase is of the nature of an adverb (sometimes an indi- 
rect object); as, "The case was conducted with skill" = skilfully. 

4. The object of the preposition is not always a single word ; it may 
be a phrase or clause; as, "The city was about to capitulate when Napo- 
leon arrived." "Much will depend on who the commissioners are." 

5. The preposition is sometimes placed after its object; as, "While 
its song, sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along." The preposition 
and object sometimes precede the word on which they depend ; as, " Of 
all patriots, Washington was the noblest." 



140. List of Prepositions. 



aboard, 


before, 


for, 


through, 


about, 


behind, 


from, 


• throughout, 


above, 


below, 


in, into, 


till, 


according to, 


beneath, 


'mid, 


to, 


across, 


beside or 


'midst, 


touching, 



Prepositions. Two terms — antecedent and subsequent. The subsequent, 
a dependent term. The object. The preposition sometimes after its object. 
List of prepositions. 



ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 



131 



after, 

against, 

along, 

amid or 

amidst, 

among or 

amongst, 

around, 

at, 

athwart, 

bating, 



besides, 



between, 


of, 


betwixt, 


for, 


beyond, 


on, 


by, 


out of, 


concerning, 


over, 


down, 


past, 


during, 


regarding, 


ere, 


respecting, 


except, 


round, 


excepting, 


since, 



notwithstanding, toward or 
towards, 
under, 
underneath, 
until, 
unto, 
up, 
upon, 
with, 
within, 
without. 



1. According to, as to, as for, out of, instead of, because of, off from, over 
against, round about, from among, from between, from around, from before, 
and the like, may be regarded as complex prepositions, and parsed as a 
single word ; or the first word of the phrase may be parsed as an adverb. 
According, contrary, in the phrases according to, contrary to, are sometimes 
regarded as participles or adjectives modifying some noun in the sen- 
tence. 

2. In such connections as the following, put in, go up, go down, cut 
through, pass by, climb up, and others, the preposition may be parsed 
as an adverb when it is not followed by an object; as the italicised 
words in such sentences as the following : " The captain stood in for the 
shore." "They rode by in haste." 

3. Some words, most commonly prepositions, are occasionally used as 
adverbs ; these are, before, after, till, until, above, beneath, for, on, in, &c. 
So also some words commonly employed as adverbs, are sometimes used 
as prepositions ; as, but, save, despite, &c. Off is usually an adverb, but 
may be parsed as a preposition when followed by an object. Instead is 
either a preposition, or equivalent to a preposition and noun = in stead. 

4. In such expressions, as, a hunting, a fishing, &c, if authorized at 
all, the a may be regarded as itself a preposition, or a contraction of at, 
in, or on. 

141. Exercise. 

1. Study the following outline for parsing the preposition : — 
To parse a preposition, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech, and why. 

(2.) Between what words it shows the relation. 

(3.) Give the rule. 

2. "He went from England to France." 

From . is a preposition : — it is used to show the relation of a noun or pro- 



Complex prepositions. Prepositions used aa adverbs. Models for parsing. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

noun to some other word ; — it shows the relation of the noun 
England to the verb went, according to Rule XIII. (Repeat it.) 
To ... is a preposition ; it shows the relation of the noun France to the 
verb went, according to Rule XIII. 

3. Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, and explain their 
relations : — 

He heard the birds sing in the morning. The buds are swelling in 
the sun's warm rays. The winds will come from the distant south. The 
bees gather honey from the flowers. I bring fresh showers for the 
thirsty flowers from sea and stream. I shall be Queen of the May. In 
the garden the crocus blooms. The hills are covered with a carpet of 
green. We shall have pleasant walks with our friends. We shall seek 
the early fruits in the sunny valley. 

4. Parse the nouns, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

Humility mainly becometh the converse of man with his Maker, 
But oftentimes it seemeth out of place in the intercourse of man with 

man, 
Yea, it is the cringer to his equal, that is chiefly seen bold to his God, 
While the martyr whom a world cannot browbeat, is humble as a child 

before Him. — Tupper. 

Of all the thoughts of God that are 
Borne inward unto souls afar, 

Along the Psalmist's music deep — 
Now tell me if there any is, 
For gift or grace surpassing this — 

" He giveth His beloved, sleep" ? — Mrs. Browning. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
142. Definition. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the 
parts of sentences; as, "The horse fell over the precipice, hut 
the rider escaped." " The horse and rider fell over the preci- 
pice." 

In the first example, but connects two sentences ; in the second, and con- 
nects the two parts, horse and rider. 

2. A pure conjunction forms no part of the material (158, 1) or 
substance of a sentence; its office is simply to unite the materials into 
a single structure. 

Conjunctions. Pure conjunctions. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 133 

3. Besides pure conjunctions, there is a large class of -words which 
enter into the sentence as a part of its substance, and at the same time 
connect different elements or parts; as, "This is the pencil which I 
lost." Here which is the object of lost, and at the same time connects 
the dependent clause, which I lost, to pencil. All such words are called 
connectives, or conjunctive words. 

143. Classes of Connectives. 

I. All connectives (whether pure conjunctions or conjunctive 
words) are divided into two classes — coordinate and subordinate. 
Coordinate connectives are those which join similar or homoge- 
neous elements; as, "John and James were disciples." 

Here John and James are similar in construction, and have a common rela- 
tion to the predicate. 

2. Two elements are coordinate, and consequently demand a coordinate 
conjunction, when they are placed in the same relation or rank (159, 1) ; 
as, "The insects devoured leaves and blossoms.'" Here leaves is depend- 
ent on devoured; blossoms also is not only dependent, but has precisely 
the same sort of dependence as leaves ; hence they are coordinate with 
each other. In the sentence, " The insects devoured the leaves greedily," 
leaves and greedily are both dependent on devoured, but they have not 
a similar dependence ; hence they are not coordinate, and cannot 
be connected by and, or any other coordinate conjunction. 

3. Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and may be 
divided into three classes — copulative, adversative, and alterna- 
tive. 

4. Copulative conjunctions are those which add parts in har- 
mony with each other ; as, " The day dawned, and our friends 
departed." 

5. The copulative conjunctions are, — 

(or.) And, a connective of the most general character, placing the connected 
parts in a relation of perfect equality, without modification or emphasis. 

(6.) So, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, furthermore, now, hence, whence, 
therefore, wherefore, consequently, even; connectives associated -with and ex- 
pressed or understood, and used to give emphasis, or some additional idea; 
as, " She sings ; [and] besides she plays beautifully." 

(c.) Not only . . . but, but also, but likewise, as well . . . as, both . . . and, 
first . . . secondly, thirdly, etc. ■ connectives employed when we wish not only 
to make the second part emphatic, hut to awaken an expectation of some 

Connectives or conjunctive words. Classes of connectives. Coordinate 
connectives. Copulative conjunctions. 
< 12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

addition. As these parts correspond to each other, these connectives aro 
called correlatives. 

6. Adversative conjunctions are those which unite parts in 
opposition to, or in contrast with, each other ; as, " The fish was 
brought to the shore, but plunged into the water again." 

7. Adversative conjunctions are employed, (1.) When the second part 
is placed in opposition to the first ; as, " It does not rain, but it snows." 
(2.) When the second part is placed in opposition to a supposed infer- 
ence from the first ; as, " The army was victorious, but the general was 
slain." Here, lest the inference should be that all was prosperous, the 
second clause preceded by but, is added. 

8. The adversative conjunctions are, — 

(a.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis; as, "I shall go, 
but I shall not walk." 

(b.) Yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, hotoever, now, and some others, 
which are associated with but, either expressed or understood, and give em- 
phasis or some additional idea; as, "The delinquent has been repeatedly 
admonished, (but) still he is as negligent as ever." 

9. Alternative conjunctions are those which offer or deny a 
choice between two things ; as, " We must fight, or our liberties 
will be lost." " She can neither sing nor play." 

10. The alternative conjunctions are, — 

(a.) Or, which offers, and nor (not or), which denies a choice. 
(b.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis, 
(c.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor. 

11. Parts standing in a causal relation to each other are sometimes 
coordinate ; but usually there are, in such cases, two connectives, one 
expressed and the other understood; as, "The south wind blows, [and] 
therefore, there must be rain." 

12. Subordinate connectives are those which join dissimilar or 
heterogeneous elements ; as, " I shall go ichen the stage arrives." 

Here when joins the subordinate clause, when the stage arrives, to the verb 
shall go. It is a part of the clause itself, being equivalent to at the time at 
which. Hence it should be introduced in naming the clause; but not so with 
the pure coordinate conjunctions. 

13. The connected element is always a proposition; it is subordinate, 
and consequently demands a subordinate connective, because it becomes 
merely a limiting expression of the antecedent term on which it depends. 
It is unlike the part with which it is connected, in its form, in its rela- 
tion or rank, and in its grammatical character. 

Adversative conjunctions. Alternative conjunctions. Subordinate con- 
nectives. 






ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 135 

14. A subordinate connective, like a preposition, always shows a rela- 
tion of dependence. But the second term is a proposition, instead of a 
noun or pronoun. 

15. Subordinate connectives are divided into three classes — 
those which connect substantive clauses, those which connect 
adjective clauses, and those which connect adverbial clauses. 

16. Substantive clauses containing a statement, (170, 3) are connected 
by the conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes but, but that. Substan- 
tive clauses containing an inquiry, are connected by the interrogatives 
who, which, what, where, whither, whence, when, hoxv long, how often, why, 
wherefore, how. 

17. Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns who, 
which, what, that, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, 
whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs why, when, where. 

18. Adverbial clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverbs where, 
whither, ivhcnce, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, farther than, 
which denote PLACE ; when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, 
since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant, as frequently 
as, as often as, which denote TIME ; or the conjunctions because, for, as, 
whereas, since, inasmuch (causal), if, unless, though, lest, except, provided, 
provided that (conditional), that, that not, lest (final), though, although, 
notwithstanding, however, whatever, whoever, whichever, while, with the cor- 
relatives yet, still, nevertheless (adversative), all of which denote CAUSAL 
relations; as, just as, so . . . as, same . . . as (correspondence), so . . . that, 
such . . . that (consequence), as . . . as (comparison of equality), the . . . 
the, the . . . so much the (proportionate equality), than, more than, less than 
(comparison of inequality), which denote MANNER. 



144. Exercise. 

1 T Study the following outline for parsing conjunctions. 
In parsing a conjunction or connective, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech, and why. 

(2.) To what class it belongs. 

(3.) What elements it connects. 

(i.) Give the rule. • 

2. " Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers." 
And ... is a conjunction ; — it is used to conned Bentenees, or the parts 
of sentences; coordinate, because it connects similar elements; 

Subordinate oonneotivea show a relation of dependence. Connectives of 
clauses — substantive — adjective — adverbial, 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it connects Socrates and Plato, according to Rule XI. (Re- 
peat it.) 

3. "Wisdom is better than riches." 

Than . . is a con/unction (why ?) ; subordinate, because it connects dis- 
similar elements ; it connects the proposition than richer (are) 
with better, according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 

4. "We must either obey or be punished." 

Either. . is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), used to awaken expec- 
tation of an additional element, and also to introduce it with 
emphasis. 

Or .... is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), and with its correlative 
either is used to connect the predicate must be punished with 
must obey. Rule XI. (Repeat it.) 

5. " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

Tliough . is a subordinate conjunction (adversative), used to awaken ex- 
pectation of an additional idea. 

Yet ... is a subordinate conjunction (adversative), and with its correla- 
tive though is used to connect the subordinate clause, " he slay 
me," with the principal one, " will I trust in him," according to 
Rule XVI. 

6. Tell which of the following connectives are coordinate, and which are 
subordinate : — 

The pen and ink are poor. The horse and the rider were plunged into 
the water. If you come, I shall have the work in readiness. When the 
million applaud, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. He 
knew that he had disobeyed instructions. That which cannot be cured 
must be endured. Take heed lest ye fall. 

7. Parse the conjunctions, adjectives, and verbs, in the following 
examples : — 

It is to the Union that we owe our safety at home, and our considera- 
tion and dignity abroad. Every year of its duration has teemed with 
fresh proof of its utility and its blessings ; and, although our territory 
has stretched out wider and wider, and our population spread further 
and further, th*y have not outrun its protection or its benefits. — Webster. 

In a word, point us to the loveliest and happiest neighborhood in the 
world on -which we dwell, — and we tell you that our object is, to render 
this whole earth, with all its nations, and kindreds, and tongues, and 
people, as happy as, nay, happier than such a neighborhood. — Wuyland. 

Models for parsing. 



ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 137 

Thy Hector, wrapped in everlasting sleep, 

Shall neither hear thee cry, nor see thee weep. — Pope. 

'Twas but a kindred sound to move, 

For pity melts the heart to love. — JJryden. 

INTERJECTIONS. 
145. Definition. 

1. An interjection is a word used to express some strong or 
sudden emotion of the mind. " Alas ! I then have chid away 
my friend." 

2. As the interjection is not the sign of an idea, but merely an 
expression of emotion, it cannot have any definable signification, or 
grammatical construction ; but as it is of frequent use in colloquial and 
impassioned discourse, it should not be omitted in parsing. 

3. "Interjection" is derived from the Latin word " interjectus" — 
thrown between, that is, between the parts of the sentence ; but it is often 
placed at the beginning, or at the end of a sentence. 

4. The most common interjections are, hey, hurra, huzza, expressing 
joy or exultation ; aha, hah, ah, expressing surprise ; ho, lo, halloo, hem, 
calling attention ; fie, pshaio, pugh, tush, foh, expressing aversion or con- 
tempt; alas, woe, alack, 0, expressing sorrow, grief, or compassion; 
hist, hush, mum, expressing a wish for silence ; heigh-ho, heigh-ho-hum, 
expressing languor ; ha, ha, he, he, expressing laughter. 

5. Some words used as interjections maybe parsed as verbs, nouns, 
or adjectives; as in the sentence "Strange! cried I." Strange is an 
adjective, and the expression is equivalent to "it is strange;" and in 
the sentence, " Behold! how well he bears misfortune's frowns!" behold 
is a verb in the imperative, equivalent to behold ye. 

146. Exercise. 

1. Outline for parsing an interjection : — 
To parse an interjection, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech, and why? 
(2.) Give the rule. 

2. "Hark! they whisper." 

Hark . is an interjection (why?) ; it is used independently. Rule X. 

3. Parse all the wards in the following examples: — - 

Oh! say what mystic spell is that which so blinds us to the Buffer- 

Interjections. Its derivation. Tho most common interjections. Interjec- 
tions used as verbs, &c. 
12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ings of our brethren, — which deafens our ear to the voice of bleeding 
humanity, when it is aggravated by the shriek of dying thousands. — 
Chalmers. 

Woe worth the chase ! woe worth the day ! 
That cost thy life, my gallant grey. — Scott. 

Oh, now you weep ; and I perceive you feel 

The dint of pity ; these are gracious drops. 

Kind souls ! What ! weep you when you but behold 

Our Ca3sar's vesture wounded! Look you here ! 

Here is himself, marred as you see, with traitors. — Shakspeare. 

Hail ! holy light, offspring of heaven first born, 
Or of the eternal, co-eternal beam! — Milton. 

Philosophy consists not 
In airy schemes or idle speculations ; 
t But the rule and conduct of all social life 
Is her great province. Not in lone cells 
Obscure she lurks, but holds her heavenly light 
To senates and to kings to guide their counsels', 
And to teach them to reform and bless mankind. 
All policy but hers is false and rotten ; 
All valor not conducted by her precepts, 
Is as destroying fury sent from hell, 
To plague unhappy man, and ruin nations. 



SYNTAX. 

147. Definitions and Distinctions. 

1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

2. A sentence is a thought expressed in words; as, "Socrates 
was unmoved when the sentence of death was pronounced against 
him." 

3. Thus, it appears that a sentence (Lat. " sententia," a thought) 
includes a thought and its expression. A thought consists of related ideas, 
an expression of related words ; and, if every idea were expressed by a 
corresponding word, a sentence would be correctly analyzed by reducing 
it to its separate words. Thus, in the sentence, — "Peter wept bitterly," 
or (analyzed), "Peter — -wept — bitterly," the three ideas — the person, 
what he did, and how he did it, are expressed by as many words ; but in 
the sentence above — " Socrates — was unmoved — when the sentence of 
death was pronounced against him," — three full ideas are expressed by 
twelve words. 

4. In analyzing a sentence, therefore, we must be governed either by 
its ideas, and, of necessity, group all words employed to express a single 
idea, — or, by its words, and thus, in many cases, lose sight of an insepa- 
rable idea by reducing its expression to single words. Thus, in the 
example above (3.) the element of time is expressed by a group contain- 
ing nine words ; yet, to one who should not first consider the group as 
a whole, but take its words separately, the idea of time would scarcely 
bo suggested. In the one case, the sentence is considered logically, — in 
the other grammatically. 

5. Each word, however, has its office, being used cither alone, or as 
part of a group to express an element of the thought. A system of 
syntax, to be complete, should, therefore, treat of the sentence, (1.) 
as a whole, — an expression of the thought; (2.) as a combination of 
words — or groups of words, — expressions of ideas or elements of the 
thought; and (3.) as an assemblage of mere words, each performing its 
peculiar office in forming the component parts of the structure. Hence, 
the subject is naturally divided into syntax of sentences, syntax of ele- 
ments, and syntax of words. 

Syntax. A pen tencc. Thought and its expression. Ideas and words. 
Analysis based upon ideas — upon words. Olliee of single words. Syntax of 
sentences, of elements, of words. 

(139) 



14:0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

148. Sentences classified by their use as a whole. 

1. All sentences, considered as a whole, are either 
(a.) Declarative ; as, " The truth will prevail." 

(6.) Interrogative , as, " Wilt thou be made whole ?" 

(e.) Imperative, as, "Put up thy sword into the sheath ;" or 

(d.) Exclamatory; as, "How art thou fallen!" 

2. A declarative sentence is used to declare something either 
as real and absolute, or as possible, probable, obligatory, or neces- 
sary; as, "I have found favor in the sight of the king;" k ' It 
may rain •" "We should pay our debts;" " The work must be 
done." 

3 The declarative sentence forms the main body of every species of 
composition ; it is that form of the sentence which is recognised by 
logicians as a proposition. It may take either the positive or the nega- 
tive form; its mode may be either indicative or potential (89, 10, 11 j. 

4. The interrogative sentence is one which asks a question ; 
as, " Doth my father yet live ?" 

5. Intei-rogative sentences are used 

(a.) To obtain information; as, "Where are those mine enemies?" 
(b.) To gain the assent of others; as, " Doth God pervert judgment?" 
0. The latter are called questions of appeal, and are used with a 
negative when the speaker expects an affirmative answer; as, "Hath lie 
said it, and will he not do it ?" without a negative when he expects a 
negative answer; as, "Can a mother forget her child?" Such sen- 
tences imply a strong affirmation or negation, and, hence, when con- 
verted into declarative sentences, the foregoing rule should be reversed : 
as, "God doth not pervert judgment." "He hath said it, and he icilL 
do it." 

7. Interrogative sentences may take either of two forms; — 
(a.) They may be formed without an interrogative word ; as, "Will 

you ride to town to-day?" or, 

(b.) They may be introduced by one of the interrogative?, who, which, 
what, where, when, why, how, kc. (78, 2, 5). 

8. The former are called direct, — arc answered by yes or no, and are 
generally uttered with the rising inflection at the close. 

0. The latter are called indirect, — are answered by some part of a 
declarative sentence called the responsive or answer; as, " Who is walk- 
Sentences classified. Declarative and interrogative sentences. Direct and 
indirect questions. 



SYNTAX — SENTENCES. 141 

ing in the garden?" Ans. "/" (am walking in the garden). These 
sentences close with the falling inflection. 

10. An imperative sentence is one which is used to express a 
command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or a prayer ; as, " Let 
justice be done;" "Do extricate my suffering friend;" "Let love 
be without dissimulation •" " Thy kingdom come." 

11. The imperative sentence may take two forms, — 

(a.) The verb may be in the imperative,- as, "Depart in peace." 
(b.) It may he in the potential ; as, " May he depart in peace." 

12. An imperative sentence of the same form is a command, an 
entreaty, or a prayer, according to the relative rank of the parties 
(89, 14). 

13. An exclamatory sentence is either a declarative, an inter- 
rogative, or an imperative sentence, so uttered as to express 
strong emotion ; as, " The foe has come !" " Was it not strange V 
" Make haste !" 

14. Exclamatory sentences are often so elliptical as to become mere frag- 
ments ; as, " Strange \" " Impossible !" " To arms !" 

15. Exclamatory expressions are often of the nature of interjections; as 
u Mercy !" " How strange I" 

16. When a sentence is composed of two different classes, it is called 
a mixed sentence; as, "Give me a place to stand, and I will raise the 
v.. I :" "They entered, indeed, upon the work, but why did they not 
continue ?" 

149. Exercise. 

Po ; nt out the different kinds of sentences in the following examples. Con- 
struct or select others like them. Change any of them from one class of 
Si ntvuee to another. 

Note. — The learner should first read the sentence attentively, and then 
consider, whether, as a whole, it declares something, asks a question, expresses 
a command, or utters an exclamation. 

Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. Though 
he slay me, yet will I trust him. What think yc of Christ ? Whose 
son is he? Would God I had died for thee, Absalom! my son! my 
son! Is this a dagger that 1 sec before me? The way was long, the 
wind was cold. Strike ! till the last armed foe expires ! 

Croat TTicrarch ! tell thou the silent 

.And tell the stars, and tell the rising sun, 

Earth, with her thousand \. <lod. — Color 

Imperative sentences Exclamatory sentences. Mixed senteno IS. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They tell us, sir, that we are -weak — unable to cope with so formidable 
an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next 
week, or the next year? Shall we gather strength by irresolution 
inaction ? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those means 
which the God of nature hath placed in our power. The battle, sir, is 
not to the strong alone: it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. If 
we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the 
contest. The war is inevitable — and let it come. Our brethren are 
already in the field. Why stand we here idle ? Is life so dear, or peace 
so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid 
it, Almighty God ! — I know not what course oihers may take ; but as 
for me — give me liberty, or give me death ! — Patrick Henry. 



150, Sentences classified by their Prepositions. 

1. All sentences consist either of a single proposition, or of 
two or more united propositions, and are divided into 

(a.) Simple ; as, " The wind blows." 

(6.) Complex , as, "When the wind blows, the trees bend." 

(c.) Compound ; as, "The wind blows, and the trees bend." 

2. A proposition is the combination of a subject and a predi- 
cate; as, " The ocean roars;" " Are you warm?" ''Obey your 
parents f " How feeble is man !" 

3. The subject represents that of which something is affirmed ; 
as, " The lilies fade." 

4. The predicate represents that which is affirmed; as, "The 
waves dash." 

. 5. The predicate sometimes represents what is denied of the subject ; 
as, "The door was not shut;" "The time will never come;" and hence 
propositions are divided into affirmative and negative. But for gi-am- 
matical purposes, to deny may be considered the same as to affirm a 
negative. In general, to affirm, as here used, applies to every species 
of proposition, the interrogative, the imperative, and the exclamatory, 
as well as the declarative (148, 1). 

6. A proposition may be used, — 

(a.) As a sentence; as, "The mists of the morn have passed 
away ;" or, 

(b.) As a mere clement (147, 5); as, "Seek not the honor 
whith cometli from men." 



Sentences classified. A proposition. The subject. The predicate. Uses 
of a proposition — as a sentence — as an clement. 



SYNTAX — SENTENCES. 14^ 

7. A proposition is a sentence, when, independently and alone, 
it expresses a thought (147, 2) of the speaker; as, "Coming 
events cast their shadows before/' 

8. A proposition is an element of a sentence, when, instead 
of a thought of the speaker, it expresses a mere idea or part of 
the thought; as, " I know that my Redeemer liveth." 

9. Hence, a sentence is always a proposition, either alone or combined with 
another, but a proposition is not always a sentence. In complex sentences, 
at least, one proposition is used to express merely an idea, in compound 
sentences, at least two propositions are used to express thoughts. 

10. A proposition used as a sentence, is a simple sentence however much it 
may be extended; as, "I call upon the humanity of my country to vindicate 
the national character ;" but, when used as an element, it is considered simple 
only when consisting of its essential parts (183, 1) ; namely, the subject and 
predicate, or subject, predicate, and connective, without modifying words; as, 
"Be silent that you may hear." 

Note. — The learner cannot too carefully mark the distinction between a 
proposition and a sentence. The same proposition may be a sentence in one 
use, and a mere element in another; as, " The day dawned;" " When the day 
dawned, we embarked." 

11. United propositions are divided into principal and subor- 
dinate. 

12. A principal proposition contains the principal or leading 
assertion; and is that on which the subordinate depends; as, 
" When spring comes, the flowers will bloom." 

13. A subordinate proposition is one which, by means of a 
subordinate connective, depends upon some part of the principal ; 
as, " When sjyriitg comes, the flowers will bloom." 

1-1. United propositions are called clauses. A sentence containing but 
one proposition (7) cannot be said to have clauses. Hence, though a 
clause is always a proposition, a proposition is a clause only when com- 
bined with another. 

15. Two united propositions are said to be 

(a.) Similar, when both alike express a thought of tho speaker, or when 
both express a m ire elem "it of the thought; as, " Talent is power, [but] tact 
is skill ;" •■ 1 could not tell token he came, nor when he went." 

(b.) Di**imilar s when one expresses ;i thought of tho speaker, and the other 
a mere element of it; as, " He who assume* the guidance <•/ other*, 
govern himself." 

Principal and subordinate propositions. Similar aud dissimilar proposi- 
tions. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

16. A simple sentence contains but one proposition; as, "The 
winds blow." 

17. A complex sentence contains two or more dissimilar pro- 
positions; as, " When the wind blows, the trees bend." 

18. A compound sentence contains two or more similar propo- 
sitions; as, "The wind blows, and the trees bend." 

Note. — A sentence containing similar subordinate propositions, must have 
at least one principal proposition, to express a thought. Hence, such sentences 
as "I neither knew ichat I icas, where I teas, nor from whence I came," are not 
compound, but complex or partial compounds (182), even though they con- 
tain similar propositions. 

151. Exercise. 

Tell which of tht folloioing sentences are simple, which are complex, and 
which are compound. Classify them, as in (143). 

In the production of order, all men recognise something sacred. 
Decide not by authoritative rules when they are inconsistent with 
reason. Though he were as rich as Croesus, still would man be dissat- 
isfied with hia condition. iPope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden ; 
but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The emperor 
Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. Good and evil v.rc inseparable 
companions ; but the latter often hides behind the back of the former. 
Tell me, when it was that you felt yourself most strongly inclined to 
go astray. m 

152. Union of entire Sentences. 

1. Entire sentences of the foregoing classes may unite without con- 
junctions, by a simple succession, to form paragraphs or other general 
divisions of discourse. 

2. This succession is sometimes governed by the order of time, some- 
times by the order of dependence, or by some other relation of the 
thoughts. 

3. Sentences should be separated from each other by the proper 
punctuation marks (241, 7). 

4. Sometimes one of the coordinate conjunctions (143, 1) is placed at 
the beginning of an entire sentence, to express more strongly its connec- 
tion with the preceding sentence; as, " Her (Athens') power is, indeed, 
manifested at the bar, in the senate, in the field of battle, in the school 
of philosophy. But these are not her glory." — Macaulay 

A simple sentence. A complex sentence. A compound sentence. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 145 

SYNTAX OF ELEMENTS. 
153. Definition. 

1. The elements of a sentence are its component parts, each 
standing for an idea and its relation to some other idea; as ; " The 
shepherd — gave — the alarm — when he discovered the approach 
of the wolf." 

2. In this example we have the person (who), the action, the object (what), 
and the time (when). The parts employed to express these ideas, whether 
words or groups of words, are elements (147, 4). 

3. Every element, whether long or short, should first he taken as a whole, 
and regarded as the expression of a complete idea ; afterwards, its nature, 
rank, form, and structure should be considered. 

154. General Division of the Elemer.ts. 

1. An element may be 

(a.) Substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

(b.) Principal or subordinate. 

(c.) A word, a phrase, or a CLAUSE. 

(d.) Simple, complex, or compound. 

2. These divisions depend upon the nature, the rank, the form, and tho 
structure of the elementary parts. 



155. General Description of the Elements. 

1. An element in any of its forms, is 

(a.) Substantive, when it has the construction and use of the noun; as, 
u That one should steal is base.*' 

(6.) Adjective, when it has the construction and use of tho adjective ; as, 
'•' Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness." 

(c.) Adverbial, when it has the construction and use of tho adverb; a.?, 
" The voice of the Lord was heard in the garden.'* 

2. An element in any of its forms, is 

Principal, when it expresses the chief idea, as, for exam, I 
or the predicate (163, 1). 

Subordinate, when it depends upon, and modifies the principal, a.-, fox ex- 
ample, the adjective, objective, or adverbial elements (164, 1). 

its of sentences. Division of elements. Elements substantive, adjec- 
tive, adverbial, principal, subordinate. 
13 K 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

3. An element has the form of 

(a.) A icord, when a single word expresses both an idea and its relation 
(153, 1); as, "A gentle — breeze — fanned — hirn." 

(b.) A. phrase, when one word (usually a noun or pronoun) expresses tbe 
idea, and another (usually a preposition) the relation ; as, " He travelled — 
in Europe." 

(c.) A clause, when a proposition (150, 6, b.) expresses the idea, ami some 
conjunctive word the relation ; as, "I know — that my Redeemer liveth." 

4. These three forms are called the first, second, and third classes of 
the elements. 

5. An element is, in its structure, — 

(a.) Simple, when the form (whether a word, phrase, or clause) expresses 
an idea without modification or addition ; as, " Paul — preached — in Rome." 

(b.) Complex, when the idea expressed by a simple element, is modified by 
a subordinate element; as, "They were discovered — in the solitude of a dense 
forest." 

(c.) Compound, when, to one idea is added an idea similar (159, 3) and 
grammatically equal; as, "A good and wise prince ascended the throne." 

(6.) An expression may be either an element of the sentence, or an element 
of an element. 

The following are examples of the elements in each form : — 

Simple. "We left — early;" " "We left — at daicn ;" " We left — when morning 
dawned." 

Complex. "We left — very early;" "We left — at early dawn;" "We left 
-^wlten the morning began to dawn in the east." 

Compound. " We were employed — early and late." " We were employed 
— at noon and at night." "We were present — when the train arrived and when 
it left." 
/ 

156. Nature of the Elements. 

1. All component parts of a sentence, whether words or groups 
of words, are divided into, — 

(a.) Those which express ideas, called the materials of the sentence. 

(o.) Those which unite' these, called connectives. 
; 2. The materials of the sentence considered apart from con- 
nectives, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

3. The connectives are coordinate or subordinate, according as they 
join parts similar or dissimilar (159, 3). 

4. Sometimes, one and the same word, is a connective, and at the same 
time forms a material part of tbe element which it connects. Such is tbe case 
with the relative pronouns (74, 1, also 77, 1, 2, <fcc.) and conjunctive adverbs 



An element, a word — phrase— clause ; simple, complex-, compound. Mate 
rials of the sentence. Connectives. 






SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 147 

(143, 18). So, also, the verb when attributive (80, 5), is equivalent to the 
participle (adjective) and the copula (connective), llence, all the parts of 
speech arrange themselves in the two classes above (1, a. b.) thus, — The noun, 
and the pronoun, as such, and the infinitive of the verb, are substantive ; the 
adjective, including all the forms of limiting and qualifying adjectives, and 
the participle or attributive part of the verb, are adjective ; the adverbs of all 
forms make up the third class — or adverbial. The interjection forms no part 
of the sentence. The conjunctions, the prepositions, the connective value of 
the relative pronouns, the connective element of conjunctive adverbs, and the 
copulative part of the verb, are connectives. 

§. These three kinds of material enter into the sentence, taking all, or 
nearly all, the constructions of the part of speech which they represent, while 
the connectives are used to join them either cob'rdinately or subordinately, as 
their several relations require. 

157. dumber of the Elements, 

1. A sentence may have five distinct elements,— 

(a.) The subject, ) t> • • i i 

;, ( mi ; y -Principal elements. 

(6.) I he predicate, J i 

(C.) The ADJECTIVE ELEMENT, ~\ 

((/ ) The objective element, v Subordinate elements. 

(fi.) The ADVERBIAL ELEMENT, ) 

Example. " Coming — events — cast — their shadows — before" 

2. The principal elements are essential to the existence of the sen- 
tence; the subordinate elements are used to modify and define the prin- 
cipal. 

3. Besides these, we may have in connection with a sentence, the 
name of the person to whom the language is addressed; as, " Children, 
have ye any meat?" This, though not properly an element of the sen- 
tence, is intimately associated with it, and is sometimes called the com- 
pellative. 

4. The compellative is either a noun or pronoun in the nominative inde- 
pendent, and may be limited, like a noun or pronoun, in any other relation ; 
as, " Ye, who listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy, and pursue with 
eagerness the phantoms of hope, * * * attend to the history of Raaselas, 

Prince of Abyssinia.'' 

153. Exercise. 

1. Separate tfo following sentences into their blkmknts (155, 1, 2, 8, 4), 
so at the prominent edeas : — 

The trees ar i of prayer ia 8 life of heaven. The 

Five element the element, objective element, 

iwh i . I. Compellative. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Swiss love liberty. He was not clad in costly raiment. Henry begged 
that they would come to his assistance. His parents mourned his un- 
timely death. He labored diligently to complete the work. The quality 
of mercy is not strained. Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me? lie 
jests at scars, that never felt a wound. How sweet the moonlight 
sleeps upon this bank I Let me stand here till thou remember it. Peace, 
tranquillity, and innocence, shed their mingled delights around him. 
Approach and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre, its covering. 

2. Tell which are principal, and which subordinate. 

3. Point out the subjects, predicates, adjective, object:', 
adverbial elements. 

4. Tell which are substantive, which adjective, and wldch adverbial. 

5. Tell which are simple, tvhich complex, and which compound. 
G. Tell ivhich are words, which phrases, and which clauses. 

159. Rank of Elements. 
1. The rank of an element is its degree of subordination, 
reckoning in the order of dependence from the subject or the 
predicate. Thus, — 

In the sentence, — " Catiline plunged into every specie? of iniquity." 
" Catiline" and " plunged" are of the first rank ; " into species," which de- 
pends upon "plunged," is of the second rank; while "every" and " of ini- 
quity." depending upon " species," are of the third rank. Hence, it will be 
seen that elements may have different degrees of subordination. 

2. All elements below the second rank, are not to be regarded r.s 
sentence-elements, but merely parts, or elements of such elements. 
Hence, the proper elements of the sentence are the subject, the predi- 
cate, and the elements immediately depending on these (157, 2). 

3. In case two elements of the same rank should be joined to a com- 
mon element, they may express, — 

(«.) Similar ideas, and be joined to each other; as, '• Alfred the Great was 
a brave [and] pious, and patriotic prince;" — or 

(L.) Dissimilar ideas, and be wholly disconnected from each other; as, 
"The enemy rushed (how) forth (when) at night (where) upon the defence- 
less city." 

Xote. — Two dissimilar elements of the same rank never unite with each 
other, though both may be joined to a common term; but dissimilar elements 
of different ranks unite with each other. 

4. Two united elements of the same rank are said to be coordinate; 
two united elements of different rank are said to be subordinate, the one 
to the other. 

Rank of elements. Sentence-elements. Similar and dissimilar elements. 
Coordinate and subordinate elements. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 149 

160. Union of Elements. 
~7**1. Two elements may be united, 

(a.) With or without a connective. 

(4.) Coordinately or subordinately ; that is, so that both unite equally 
to express one general idea which may be employed to modify a third, 
or so that one shall depend upon and modify the other. 

Thus, in the sentence, " An industrious — scholar — studies — his lesson — 
attentively," the five elements (157, 1) are joined without the use of a con- 
nective. But in the sentence, — " The leaves — of the aspen — are trembling — 
in the breeze," the elements are all joined by the connectives of, are, and in. 
.In the sentence, — "We prosecuted our journey — by day and by night," the 
two adverbial elements are joined to each other coordinately by "and" (159, 
4), and to the predicate subordinately by the preposition "by." 

2. Coordinate elements are always joined to each other by some one 
of the coordinate conjunctions (143) ; and should each coordinate part 
contain in itself a subordinate connective, this last is used to join it to 
the common element, as, for example, "by" in the sentence above. 

3. When the connection between two united elements is subordinate, it 
is always without a connective in elements of the first form (single word.-: i, 
and with connectives expressed or understood in all other cases. In the 
first case, the relation is shown either by the position or by the altered 
form of the words ; as, " He industrious-/// employ-s alLhis powers." 

4. Coordinate connectives form no part of either of the connected elements. 
But subordinate connectives form an important part of the elements which 
the,v introduce. The subordinate connectives are either the prepositions, and 
to of the infinitive; or the relative pronouns, conjunctions, and the conjunc- 
tive adverbs (143, 12), 139). The copula forms a part of the predicate, and 
joins two elements, both of which are essential, and arc hence called princi- 
pal, yet they are not coordinate.. 

5. A proposition without a connective expressed or understood, is usually 
a principal proposition. In direct quotations (170), however, the quoted 
proposition is not incorporated into the sentence as an original idea of the 
Bpeaker (150, 9), but still remains as a thought of its author; hence, though 

construction, it has no connective ; as, " lie said, I shall nc*ither 
ny." Compare with this, " lie said that he should neither con- 

VO coordinate elements unite to express a combined idea, the 

. . enter into the structure of the Other ; but the subordinate 

litutes, as it were, an organic part of the principal element 

161. Mutual Relation of Elements. 
incipal element always controls or governs the sub- 



toed with or without a connective, — coordinately, subordinated}-. 
principal element. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. This it does by causing the subordinate element 
(a.) To agree with itself, or 

(6.) To take some particular case, mode, or tense. 

3. The former is called agreement or concord, aud the latter government. 
Thus, the adjective implying number, agrees in number with the noun ; as, 
"These (not this) books;" — the verb agrees in number and person -with the 
subject; as, "I walk;" — the predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case with 
the subject; as, "/am he." So also the noun in apposition. The government 
of the superior term is effected either directly ; as, " Solomon's temple;" — or 
by means of a connective ; as, " The temple of Solomon." So also of the 
objective case, "We saw him," "We looked at him" 

4. The subordinate element always modifies or limits the 
principal, 

5. This it does by restricting or extending its application ; as, " The people 
(not all, but those) of Maine ;" "All men are mortal." In the first example 
the phrase "of Maine" limits the application of "people" by showing what 
people, and excluding all others. 

6. This office of the subordinate term is that which enables us to 
restrict the meaning of a general term so as to individualize its appli- 
cation. 

Thus, man is a general term, and applies equally well to any one of tho 
race, but "The man who was first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts 
of his countrymen," points out as definitely a single man as does the name 
George Washington. The term which thus restricts or extends the meaning 
of another is said to limit or modifj it. 

7« Co-ordinate elements neither govern nor modify each other. 

8. That is, the one in no way affects the case, mode, tense, number, picrson, 
agreement, or application of the other. 

162. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements (154), and tell the 
raxk of each. 

Sd¥t stillness and the night become the touches of sweet 
The man that hath not music in himself, 
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sou 
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. 

Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes 
the cast. 

All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice : 
every country, and in every age, have been the triumphs 

The way was long — the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

Modification of the subordinate element. Relation of cob'rdii 



SYNTAX ELEMENTS. 151 

2 Tell which are of the first, second, and third rank. 

3. Tell which are united co-ordinately, which subordinately, which 
with, and which without, a connective. 

4, Tell which elements control or govern others, which modify, and 
which neither control nor modify. y 

163. Principal Elements. 

\ 

1. The principal elements are the highest in rank (157, 1), 
and are essential to the formation of a sentence. They are the 
subject, and the predicate (150, 3, 4). 

2. The subject is a word, or a group of words, used to repre- 
sent that of which something is affirmed; as, "The sea roars;" 
" To err is human;" " That Christianity icill become the religion 
of all nations, is declared in the Scriptures." 

3. The predicate is a word, or a group of words, used to repre- 
sent that which is affirmed of the subject; as, " The day dawns ;" 
" The affair is to be invest igated ;" " Our hope icas, that the wind 
■mould drive us to the ojwosite shore." 

4. The suhject represents some object (35, 2), and the predicate some 
attribute of that object; as, "The city is populous ;" " The morning light 
is breaking.''' 

5. Attributes are of three kinds : — 

(a.) Those which denote the class of objects; as, least, bird, tree. 
(fc.) Those which denote the qualities of objects ; as, good, old, street. 
(c.) Those which denote the actions of objects; as, run, crawl, fly. 

6. In some cases, the attribute denotes mere!}' the state of the object; as, 
"The tree stands ;" "The prisoner is in Jwi/th." 

7. The union of the attribute with its object may be repre- 
sented in two ways : — 

(a.) It may be predicated of it; as, "The shy is blue;" "The sea is 
rough;" " Reptiles are poisonous ,-" or, 

(6.) It may be assumed of it ; as, "blue sky ;" " rough sea ;" • 
ous reptiles." 

S. This distinction is fundamental ; if no attribute is predicated, we enn- 
r.ot have ;i sentence, no matter how many may be assumed. The oi 
called the predicative combination, the other the adjective or attributive. The 
one >> :i formal statement (Lat. " predicare," t<> tell, to declare) of a present 
opinion or judgmi speaker; the other is an informal assumption 

nen'," to take, as if conceded, or granted) of a previous opinion 

ipaJ elements. The subject. The predicate. Attributes of class, 
quality, action. Attributes predicated — assumed. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or judgment, not now asserted, but supposed to be granted by the bearer. 
The one is a proposition (150, 2), the other is not (although it presupposes 
one), but is a mere appendage to one. A predicated action is represented by 
a verb ; an assumed action by a, participle, that is, the former asserts some- 
thing of a noun, the latter assumes the same and thereby limits the noun. 

9. The attribute, when predicated, is joined to the subject either directl}-, 
or by some form of the verb "to be," called the copula. When the copula is 
employed, it connects the attribute to the subject by predicating it. "When 
the copula and attribute are united in the verb, the latter contains the power 
to predicate its own attribute (80). 

10. Besides the copula, several verbs, such as become, seem, appear, and the 
passives is made, is appointed, is elected, is created, is constituted, is rendered, 
is named, is styled, is called, is esteemed, is thought, is considered, &c, &c, 
perform the office of the copula, and are hence called copulative verbs. 

164. Subordinate Elements. 

1. The subordinate elements are those which depend upon 
and modify (161, 4) the principal elements. They are 

(a.) The adjective or attributive element ; 
(6.) The objective element; 
(c ) The adverbial element. 

2. These elements are used to give greater definiteness to a proposi- 
tion by limiting the application of its principal terms (161, 6). 

3. The adjective element is any word, or group of words, added 
to the subject (or the noun in any relation), and is used to show 
what hind, what, of what, how many, or ichose ; as, u White 
clouds were seen in the west ;" These hands have ministered to 
nry necessities;" " Three regiments of volunteers were enlisted;" 
"Those who expect favors must learn to be obliging." 

4. The objective element is a word, or group of words, added 
usually to a transitive verb, and is used to complete its meaning 
by showing what, whom, to what, to whom, Sic; as, "The boy 
opened the door;" "Pharaoh made Joseph governor over the 
land;" "He gave me a book" 

5. The object may be either single or double, direct or indirect. 

6. Certain adjectives, and even the adverbs derived from them, require the 
addition of an indirect object to complete their meaning ; as, " He was con- 
scious of his weakness ;" "He was like his father /' "The}* came agreeably 
to promise." 

7. The adverbial element is any word, or group of words, added 

The copula. Copulative verbs. Subordinate elements. The adjective ele- 
ment. The objective clement. The adverbial clement. 



SYNTAX ELEMENTS. 153 

to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and is used to show place, 
time, cause, or manner; '• We approached slowly ;" "They came 
in the spring;" " They stopped where night overtook them." 

8. Adverbial elements of whatever form, like adverbs, denote place, time, 
cause, or manner. 

165. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements: — 

The principle which gave a peculiar coloring to every feature of Isa- 
bella's mind was piety. Death is the season which brings our affections 
to the test, Has reason tied from our borders ? To err is human ; to 
forgive, divine. That high moral excellence is true greatness cannot be 
denied. I have forgotten why I called thee back. There are plenty of 
men who become distinguished by the predominance of one single 
faculty, or the exercise of a solitary virtue. She ioves a goddess 
;:.lc mourned the lily where the ro had died. low fades the glim- 
mering landscape from the sight. I eep in the wave is a coral grove. 
The eldest son of the British soveiv.gn is styled the Prince of Wales. 

2. Tell xohich are principal, and which subordinate. 

3. Tell xohich subjects or predicates are words or groups of words. 

4. Tell xohich predicates denote class, which quality, and ivhich action. - 

5. Assume each predicate of its subject. 

6. Tell which predicates have a copula or copulative verb. 

7. Point out the adjective, objective, and adverbial elements, and 
tell which are single words, and which are groups of words 4 



X 



168. Elements cf the First Class.— Words. 
1. When a word, expressing an idea without a connective 
(155, 3, a.), is used as the subject, predicate, or part immediately 
depending upon either, it is a sentence-element of the first clap* 

Example. — " Constant — boasting — always — betrays — incapacity." 

U. When such a word depends upon one of the subordinate elements, 
it is of the third rank (159, 2), and though an element of the firsl class, 
element of an element, that is, forms part of a complex element ; 
as, •• We I:"!' 1 to find employment." 

:;. All words, thus used, perform the office of the substantive, adjec- 
ts \ or adverb (153, 2). 



A word — when a sentence-element — when not an element A word — ?ub- 
adjective, or adverbial. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

187. Elements of the Second Class. — Phrases. 

1. When an expression, in its simplest form, has one word to 
represent an idea, and another to show its relation, it is a phrase 
or element of the second class. 

Example. — "A statue of marble — was chiselled — by the artist." 

Note. — Any group of words not containing an assertion is a phrase ; as, 

" very earnestly ;" " quite favorably ;" but here each word expresses an idea. 

A phrase, as used in analysis of sentences, is restricted to a group of words 

having one word to show a relation, and another either alone or modified to 

express an idea ; as, " at dawn ;" " at early dawn." 

2. When a phrase depends upon one of the subordinate elements, it 
is still an element of the second class, but not a sentence-element 
(159, 2) ; as, "A popular poet had the post of honor.'" 

3. All phrases, as a whole, are either substantive, adjective, or adver- 
bial (156, 2). 

4. Every simple phrase should be separated into its two parts ; and 
every complex or compound phrase into its simple elements. For a full 
discussion of Phrases, see Analysis, Chap. II. 

168. Elements of the Third Class.— Clauses. 
1. When an expression, in its simplest fo v m, has a proposition 
to represent an idea and some word to show its relation, it is a 
clause or element of the third class. 

Example. — ''Satan, whom ?ioic transcendent glory raised above his fellows, 
spake." 

2. A clause, like a phrase, is always a group of words ; but, unlike a 
phrase, it always contains a proposition. 

3. A clause is a sentence-element (159, 2) only when it is used as the sub- 
ject, pi-edicate, or part directly dependent upon one of these; otherwise, it is 
but an element of an element. 

Examples of clauses used as sentence-elements. — " That a man of mighty genius 
can impart himself to other minds is well known to all." "He who teaches 
often learns himself." " Thou knowest that virtue cannot be despoiled of its 
deathless croicn." " Tf thine enemy hunger, feed him." 

Examples of clauses used as />(*>•<« of elements. — " They— sailed — in the 
steamer which left on Wednesday ;" "I — experienced — a pleasure which I can- 
not describe." 

4. All subordinate clauses are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial, 
(159, 2), and may take the grammatical construction of the parts of speech 
which they represent. 

A vmrase — when a sentence-element — when not. Phrases — Bubstantive, 
adjective, or adverbial. A clause — when a sentence-element — when not. 
Subordinate clauses— substantive, adjective, adverbial. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 153 

5. A simple subordinate clause consists of a connective, and a proposition 
containing a subject and a predicate only (150, 10). A complex clause i3 
formed by adding modifying elements to the subject or predicate of a simple 
clause. See Analysis, Chap. III. 

169. Exercise. \ 

Separate the, following sentences into their elements, and tell which are of 
the first class, which of the second, and which of the third : — 

Ilegard the rights of property. Columbus died in ignorance of the 
real grandeur of his discovery. On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin 
glow. The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. 
The noble Brutus hath told you Coesar was ambitious. A A e stand the 
latest, and if we fail, probably the last, experiment of self-government 
by the people. We have begun it under circumstances of the most 
auspicious nature. V.'e are in the vigor of youth. )ur growth has 
never been chocked by the oppressions of tyranny. The Atlantic rolls 
between us and any formidable foe. 

Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day 

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array. 

170. Direct and Indirect Quotation. 

1. When a writer quotes the thought of another, and incor- 
porates it into a sentence of his own, he may introduce it 

(a.) As a thought of the author narrated by himself in his own words 
exactly ; or 

(£>.) As an idea of the speaker adopted from the author, and narrated 
for the latter in his own words nearly. 

The first is called direct quotation ; as, " He said, ' / will Jo 
it.'" The second is called indirect quotation; as, "He said, 
that he would do it." 

2. The quoted part is used substantively, and appears as a substantive 
clause most commonly in tho objective. 

3. All substantive clauses may be divided into those containing 

(a.) A statement or a command; as, "Many suppose that the planet* arc ' 
inhabited ;" "The captain gave the order, 'shoulder arms.' M 
(6.) An inquiry ; as, " Let mo ask ichy you have come?" 

4. In quoting a statement of another directly, we should indicate the quo- 
tation by the marks, or the use of the capital, without a connective (IGO, 5). 
But in quoting indirectly, the quotation marks are omitted, and the connect- 
ive that should be employed; as, "God said. Lei there be Light* and there 
was light;" " St. John Bays that God La love." 



Simple and complex clauses. Quotation, — when direct and when indirect. 
A substantive clause, a statement, an inquiry. Quoted questions— direct and 
indirect. 



15G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. In quoting an inquiry of another, two cases may occur, — 

(a.) The interrogative may be a direct question (148, 7, 8) without an inter- 
rogative word ; or, 

(b.) It may be an indirect question, with an interrogative pronoun or adverb 
for a connective (78, 5). 

6. When a direct or indirect question is quoted directly, the quoted 
part should begin with a capital, or receive the quotation marks, having 
the interrogation point at the chose ; as, " They inquired, "Will he cer- 
tainly come ?" " He asked, How long must we wait?" 

7. When a direct question is quoted indirectly, the connective whether 
(sometimes if) is used, the quotation marks are omitted, and a period is 
placed at the close ; as, " He asked whether the time had arrived." When 
an indirect question is quoted indirectly, the interrogative word becomes 
the connective, and the sentence closes with the period, the quoted part 
having no quotation marks ; as, "They asked where we were to stop." 

8. It should be observed that in indirect quotation, the person of the 
subject, the mode and tense of the verb, and the arrangement of the parts, 
are often changed; as, "He said, ( I will be present at an early hour;'" "He 
said that he would be present at an early hour." 

9. The quoted passage, whether direct or indirect, may form either 
of the five elements of the sentence, except, the adverbial. 

Examples. — " ' Will he do it V is the question ;" " The question is, ' Will 
he do it?'" "The question, 'Will he do it f has not yet been answered." 
"He said that he icould do it." 

10. It should be observed that the interrogation point follows all interrog- 
ative clauses when quoted directly, and is omitted after all such clauses when 
quoted indirectly. This last remark must not be confounded with those eases 
where the principal clause is interrogative; as, "Shall I tell where we met 
with encouragement?" " Do you ask me who I am?" 

11. The clause, which is usually the leading one, may take 
(a.) A prominent position; as, " They say that they have bought it." 

(6.) An intermediate position ; as, "For all that," said the pendulum, " it is 
very dark here." 

(c.) A position wholly subordinate; as, "lie left, as he told me, before the 
arrival of the steamer." 

171. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and point out the 
quotations : — 

Then Judah came near unto him. and said, 0, my lord, let thy ser- 
vant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears. "Punctuality," re- 
plied Washington, "is an angel virtue." "Tell me, my son," said Lp, 
"did you ever hear of any who are called ungrateful?" Try the spirits, 

Changes of person, Ac., in indirect quotation. Different relations of the 
quoted passage. Interrogation point, when used. Position of leading clause. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 157 

whether they be of God. He asked, whether they were friends or 
foes (170, 7). " ' Why have you come so late V was the prompt inquiry." 
The question, " Where shall the funds be obtained ?" seemed not to have 
entered their minds. Let me ask you if your resolutions are as firm as 
when you first set out in the spiritual life. The Scriptures inform us 
how we may obtain eternal life. It is natural to man, as Patrick 
Henry eloquently said, to indulge in the illusions of hope. I am not to 
discuss the question, whether the souls of men are naturally equal. 
But I would ask, does the recollection of Bunker's Hill, Saratoga, and 
Yorktown, afford no pleasure ? 

2. Show which quotations are direct, and which are indirect. 

3. Shoiv which contain statements or commands, and which inquiries. i 

172. Simple, Complex, and Compound Elements. >^j 

1. When an element of either class expresses a single idea, q 
without addition or modification, it is a simple element; as, " An ^ c 
honest man ; a man of honesty ; a man who is honest." / HUj 

2. The simple subject is called the grammatical subject; the simple J ^ ' 
predicate, the grammatical predicate. The same distinction might be VJ 
made in the other elements. Thus, we have the simple or grammatical ^ y 
adjective, objective, or adverbial element. ?'~~ % 

3. When a simple or grammatical element receives the addition "">• J 
of another simple element, joined to it subordinately (160, 1, 6), / 
to modify its meaning, the two unite and form one element, called V 
a complex or logical element; as, "Avert/ honest man; a man 6 
of extreme honesty) a man who is perfectly honest. ' r, ^ 

4. A complex or logical element is the simple or grammatical 
element with all its modifications, and may first be considered 
as a whole, and then separated into its simple parts. 

5. In this case, the grammatical or leading element, is called the prin- 
cipal element or basis, and gives its own name and properties to the whole 
group. 

Thus, in the sentence, "They improved the opportunities which they 
enjoyed," the objective element is " the opportunities which they enjoyotl :" 
opportunities is the basis, limited by the adjective clause "which they 
enjoyed." 

6. An element may be subordinate fo one and principal to another; 
as, "They discovered 1m. : ice." 

Here " masses*' is subordinate to H discorded/' aiul principal to the phrase 
" of ice." 

Elements — simple, complex, and compound. The basis. 
H 



153 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. When a simple or a complex element receives the addition 
of another joined to it coordinately (160, 1, £>.), the two unite 
(159 and 160), and form one compound element; as, u Exercise 

and temperance strengthen the constitution." 

173. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and point out those 
which are simple, complex, or compound : — 

The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness of 
thought. The place was worthy of such a trial. Neither military nor 
civil pomp was wanting. Poetry is the handmaid of true philosophy 
and morality. The style and the eloquence and structure of their ora- 
tions were equally different. That their poetry is almost uniformly 
mournful, and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be 
allowed by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. ' If the mighty 
pyramid had any purpose beyond that of a mausoleum, such purpose 
has perished from history and from tradition. To deprive me of liberty, 
to torture me, or to imprison me, is not your right. One of the first 
lessons of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to discriminate. 

174. Elements of the Simple Sentence. 

1. The elements of the simple sentence may be,— 
(a.) Substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 
(b.) Principal or subordinate (156). 

(c.) Words or phrases. 

(d.) Simple, complex, or compound. 

2. The simple sentence is distinguished from all others, by 
the fact that it has but one proposition — no one of its elements 
being a clause. 

175. Varieties of the Elements. 

1 The simple subject may be, — 

(a.) A noun ; as, "Kings reign." 

(b.) A pronoun; as, " He lives ;" " They come ;" "Who knows ?" 

(c.) An adjective used as a noun ; as, " The wicked flee." 

(d.) A icord, Utter, or symbol (35, 5) ; as, " Is is a verb;" " P is a mute." 

(e.) A substantire phrase ; as, " To steal is base." 

2. The simple predicate may be, — 

(a.) A verb, — copula and attribute combined ; as, " The sun shines." 

(b.) The copula and participial attribute; as, "We are reading." 

(c.) The copida and adjective attribute; as, "The sea teas boisterous." 

The simple sentence. Its elements. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 159 

(<l.) The copula and substantive attribute; as, " I ain he ;" " She is the prin- 
cess." 

(e.) The copula and a phrase; as, " He is to write." 

(/.) The copulative verb (82, 9), and either of these attributes; as, "He is 
called John." / 

3. The complex subject, except when the simple subject is verbal, 
contains an adjective element, which may be 

(1.) Simple, embracing 

(a.) A limiting adjective; as, " This man came." 

(6.) A qualifying adjective; as, " Old timber decays." 

(c.) A noun used as an adjective; as, " Gold watches were sold." 

(d.) A noun in apposition ; as, " King Latinus rule.!." 

(e.) A noun or pronoun in the possessive; as, " Joseph's brethren wept;" 
" His father came." 

(/.) Two or more separate elements of either kind; as, " The first star 
appeared." " Three young men were employed." " The first three old houses 
were destroyed." " The apostle Paul preached at Rome." " Isaac's son 
Jacob deceived him." 

(2.) Complex, formed 

(a.) By joining an adverb to an adjective; as, "A truly great man has 
died." 

(b.) By joining an adjective or participle to a noun; as " Bunyan, the dis- 
tinguished author, was imprisoned;" "The old man's daughter wept." 

(c.) By joining an adjective phrase to a noun; as, "Galileo, the inventor 
of the telescope, was persecuted." 

3. The complex predicate may contain, — 

(a.) A simple direct object/ as, "Raleigh commanded an expedition;" 
"They disappointed us." 

(b.) A simple indirect object; as, "Were not his talents given him f" 

(c.) A double object, consisting of an object and attribute (word or phrase) ; 
as, " They made him an officer." " They made him sick." " They made him 
labor." "They taught him to read." 

(d.) A direct and an indirect object; as, "We gave him a book." "They 
asked us to go." 

(e.) A complex object; as, "We obtained delicious fruit." 

Notk. — The object may be complex in the same way as the subject. (See 
3. above.) 

(/.) The double object may be complex in either or both of its parts: as. 
"Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain." Here "brother" is 
modified by "his" and by "Joseph," and "king" by the phrase "of Spain." 

4. The complex predicate may contain. — 

(a.) A simple adverb of place, time, Sao. : as, " They came fate." 

(b.) A simple adverbial phrase of plaee. time, &0. ; ;i<. " We left <it night." 

(c.) A complex adverbial element) consisting of Bingle wox I 

ro-le r, ry fist." 

Simple sentences. Their elements. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(d.) A complex adverbial element, consisting of a word and a phrase ; as, 
"He appeared agreeably to promise." 

(e.) A complex, adverbial element, consisting of two phrases; as, "lie 
walked in the garden of the king." 

(/.) Either form of the objective element (4, a. b. c. d. &c), and either form 
of the adverbial (5, a. b. c. &c). 

176. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following simple sentences into their elements: — 
A duty has been performed. The Bunker Hill monument is finished. 
The peasantry sinks before the invader. A jailor of the dauphin of 
France was named Simon. Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was sent 
a prisoner to Rome. I have spoken of the loftiness of its purpose. 
The powerful speaker stands motionless before us. How beautiful is all 
this visible world ! Poetry has a natural alliance with our best affec- 
tions. The teacher gave a reward to the best scholar. I bring thee 
here my fortress-keys. 



177. Elements of Complex Sentences. 

1. The elements of a complex sentence are clauses, of which one, at 
least, must be principal, and one subordinate; as, "I am not now to 
discuss the question — whether the souls of men are naturally equal." 

2. The principal clause should be regarded, however, as a simple 
sentence, and the subordinate, as one of its elements. 

3. Thus considered, the complex sentence may have principal and 
subordinate elements, either of which may be words, phrases, or clauses, 
and either may be simple, complex, or compound. 



178. Varieties of Complex Sentences. 

1. The complex sentence has the same varieties of word and 
plirase elements as the simple sentence. (See 175.) 

2. The subordinate clause, as substantive, adjective, or adverb 
(156, 2), may form either of the five elements of the sentence 
(157, 1). 

3. The subject may be a substantive clause in any of its varieties 
(170, 3). 

(a.) A statement quoted directly; as, " c I must leave to-morrow/ was his 
reply." 

Elements of complex sentences. Clauses — simple, complex, compound. 
Varieties of clauses. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1G1 

(b.) A command quoted directly; as, "'Follow me,' was our Lord's com- 
mand." 

(c.) An abstract statement quoted indirectly, and introduced by " that;" as, 
" That the earth revolves on its axis has been clearly proved" = It has been 
clearly proved, &c. 

(d.) A direct question quoted directly ; as, " ' Will he do it f is the question." 

(e.) A direct question quoted indirectly ; as, " Whether he xcill do it is doubt- 
ful." 

(/.) An indirect question quoted directly ; as, " ' Who was the author of Ju- 
nius' 's Letters ?' is still a question." 

(g.) An indirect question quoted indirectly; as, ""Who was the author of 
Junius's Letters has never been satisfactorily determined." 

4. The predicate may be the copula and a substantive clause in any 
of the varieties above ; as, "A second mistake upon the subject of hap- 
piness is, that it is to be found in prosperity." 

5. The adjective element may be 

(1.) The adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun used as 
(a.) Subject of its own clause ; as, " His fame, which is hounded by no coun- 
try, will be confined to no age." 

(6.) Adjective element ; as, "I could a tale unfold avuose lightest word would 
harroio up thy sold." s 

(c.) Single object; as, "The lesson which she learned was too long." 
(d.) Double object; as, "The' man WHOM they call the jaxitor." 
(c.) Adverbial element (with a preposition); as, " The church in which they 
met was dimly lighted." 

(2.) A substantive clause in any of its varieties used as an adjective; 
as, " The question, ' What shall we do V " " The opinion that the planets 
are inhabited." 

(3.) An adverbial clause used as an adjective to limit a noun; as, "I 
remember the time when my existence commenced." 

6. The objective element may be a substantive clause in any of the 
varieties above (3) ; as, " He knew how to conquer by waiting." " ' What 
will he give to my friend the king of Norway V asked the brother." 

7. The adverbial element may be an adverbial clause denoting 
(a.) Place ; as, "Whither I go, ye cannot come." 

(b.) Time; as, "While I was musing, the fire burned." 
(r.) Cause ; as, "Ye shall not see me, because I go unto my Father." 
(d.) Manner ; as, " Speak as you think ;" " Mary is as old cm her cousin." 
Note. — For all the varieties of the adverbial clause, see Analysis. Chap. 
III. 

179. Elements of Compound Sentences. 
1. The elements of compound sentences are principal clauses 
(150, 11, 18); as 3 " i was hungry, and ye gave no moat." 

Elements of complex sentences. Compound sentences. 
14* L 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The added clause may be either copulative, adversative, alternative, 
or causal. 

3. The component parts may be either simple or complex sentences. 
Thus, — " The man was communicative enough, but nothing was distinct in 

his mind;" ""We must not expect that our roses will grow without thorns ; 
but then they are useful and instructive thorns, which, by pricking the fingers 
of the too hasty plucker, teach future caution." 

4. Sometimes a compound sentence consists of members,— each being formed 
by a close union of its clauses, but in a measure separated from each other ; 
as, " The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib : but Israel 
doth not know; my people doth not consider." 

The first two propositions form the first member, and the last two the 
second. 

180. Varieties of Compound Sentences. 

1. Copulative. 

(a.) Without emphasis, and with a simple connective ; as, " The rain is over, 
and the sun shines." 

(6.) With the second clause rendered emphatic, by an associated connect- 
ive (143, 5, 6, c) ; as, " She sings ; [and] besides she plays skilfully." 

(c.) With the second clause not only rendered emphatic, but pointed to, and 
more closely connected by means o,f a correlative ; as, " Nut only am I in- 
structed by this exercise, but I am also invigorated." 

2. Adversative. 

(a.) Denoting opposition or contrast ; as, "He did not return to his parents, 
but he persisted in wandering among strangers." 

(b.) Denoting some limitation or restriction ; as, "The arm}' was victorious, 
but the general was slain." 

(c.) Denoting opposition or restriction with emphasis e.rjyressed by a correla- 
tive or an associated connective ; as, " The delinquent has been repeatedly ad- 
monished, but still he is as negligent as ever." 

3. Alternative. 

(a.) Simply offering or denying a choice ; as, " We must fight, or our liber- 
ties are lost." 

(b.) Offering or denying a choice villi emj->hasis ; as, " Learn your lesson, or 
othencise you must lose your rank ;" "Neither hath this man sinned, nor bis 
parents." 

4. Causal. 

Note. — Causal, coordinate propositions are generally placed in both a 
copulative and causal relation to the former ; as, " The south wind blows 
[and] therefore there must be rain." The causal connective may therefore bo 
considered as associated with some conjunction expressed or understood. Yet 
for, therefore, hence, whence, a*d other illative conjunctions, are sometimes 
the only connectives. 

Copulative, adversative, alternative, causal. Members. Elements of com- 
pound sentences. 



SYNTAX — CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 1G3 

181. Exercise. 

Separate the follotcing sentences into their elements, pointing out the com- 
plex and the compound sentences, and tho principal and subordinate 
clauses : — 

Our ancestors came to the land, when fifty centuries had held reign, 
with no pen to write their history. Silence, which no occupation of 
civilized life had broken, was in all its borders, and had been from cre- 
ation. The lofty oak had grown through its lingering age, and decayed, 
and perished, without name or record. The storm had risen and roared 
in the wilderness, and none had caught its sublime inspiration. The 
fountains had flowed on ; the mighty river had poured its useless waters ; 
the cataract had lifted up its thundering to the march of time, and no 
eye had seen it, but that of the wild tenants of the desert. — Dewey. 

Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw ? The sun 
shines, but they behold it not. Though he were a son, yet learned he 
obedience. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. 



132. Elements of Contracted Sentences. 

1. A contracted sentence is one which is derived from a com- 
pound or a complex sentence. 

Thus, "Heaven and earth shall pass away,'' is derived from " Heaven shall 
pass away, and earth shall pass away." So the sentence, " The hencfit arising 
to us from an enlarged understanding cannot well he overrated." is derived 
from " The benefit which arises to us from an enlarged understanding, cannot 
well he overrated." 

2. Contracted sentences are 

(a.) Partial compounds, when they arc derived from compound sen- 
tences. 

(b.) Sentences icilh abridged propositions, when they arc derived from 
complex sentences. 

3. A compound sentence may be contracted when its clauses have a 
common part ; as, " The sun stood still, and the moon stood still'' = " The 
sun and the moon stood still.^ 

4. To derive a partial from a full compound, unite into one compound 
the parts not found in each clause, and to this join the common part, 
changing the number of the verb if necessary. 

Example. — " Industry is essential to happiness, honesty fa essential to hap- 
piness, and temperance fa essential to happiness V ■ •• Industry, honesty, and 
temperance are essential to happiness." 

5. A complex sentence may be contracted by abridging its Bubordi- 

A contracted sentence. Partial compound. Abridged propositions. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nate clause; as, " When peace of mind is secured, we may smile at mis- 
fortune ;" " Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune." 

6. A subordinate clause is abridged by dropping its connective, and 
changing the predicate into a participle or an infinitive. The subject is 
dropped when it has already been expressed in the principal clause, 
otherwise it must be retained, either in the nominative, possessive, or 
objective. The predicate is never dropped. 

Note. — A proposition is abridged when it loses its copula, or power to pre- 
dicate, even if the number of words or syllables should be increased by the 
change. 

7. In case a clause should form one term of a comparison, the appro- 
priate connective of the clause is dropped; but that which shows the 
comparison is retained ; as, " The bed is shorter than that a man can 
stretch himself in it." — Bible. Abridged, it would be, "The bed is 
shorter than for a man to stretch," &c. In this example, the subjects 
of the clauses are unlike. When the subjects are alike, that of the sub- 
ordinate clause is dropped by rule, and the simple infinitive is all that 
remains; as, "My friend was so elated as that he forgot his appoint- 
ment" = as to forget his appointment;" "The soldiers desired nothing 
more than to know where the enemy was." So, again, in case of incor- 
porated interrogative sentences, the interrogative being used both as a 
connective and a material part of the clause (156, 4), must be retained 
when the clause is abridged ; as, "I knew not what I should do" = I knew 
not what to do (201, 19). In the same way we have, I know not whom 
to send, where to go, when to stop. 

8. Logically considered, the derived expression as a whole is an 
equivalent (186) of the original, and sustains the same relation in the 
sentence. In the full form, all the words within the clause have the 
same construction as in a simple sentence, but are wholly independent 
of any word which may govern the clause. But grammatically consi- 
dered, the words of the abridged clause cease to have the construction 
of the simple sentence; the subject is no longer subject, the predicate 
is no longer predicate, and either one or the other must be aifected by 
the word which governed the primitive clause. Thus, in the sentence, 
"I believe that he is an honest man" no word in the subordinate clause 
is changed to show that, as a whole, the clause is the object of "believe." 
But in the abridged form, "I believe him to be an honest man" "he" 
becomes " him," the principal object of " believe." and " to be an honest 
man," the attributive object (211, 0) "man," being in the objective, to 
agree with "him" by (161, 3). 

9. When the relation of the subordinate clause is such as not to come 
under the governing influence of any word, as when it denotes a causal 

Rule for abridging a proposition. Clauses denoting comparison. Effect 
of the governing word. 



SYNTAX CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 1G5 

or concomitant circumstance, the subject of the abridged proposition is, 
as it were, absolved from any regimen from without, and remains un- 
changed in the nominative, called the nominative absolute, and the predi- 
cate noun, if there be any, remains also in the nominative by (161, 3); 
as, " Since a youth is their leader, what can they do ?" = A youth being 
their leader, what can they do ? 

10. When the subject is dropped, the predicate alone is affected by the 
word which governed the full proposition. This is the case with nearly 
air adjective clauses, where the participle as an adjective becomes subor- 
dinate to the word which the clause limits; as, "The ship which glided 
over the waves" = The ship gliding over the ivaves. It is also the case in 
many adverbial clauses, where the participle as a noun is governed by 
a preposition used to show the adverbial relation; as, " When they 
approached the city, they were met by a select committee" = On approach- 
ing the city, they were met, &c. 

11. So, again, when the subject is not dropped, but is made wholly 
subordinate to the abridged predicate, the latter as a noun stands in the 
same relation as the full form, and the former modifies it; as, "I was 
not aware that he lived in the city" = I was not aware of his living in the 
city. The participle of the predicate is made especially prominent, while 
the subject seems to remain in the nominative in abridged propositions 
introduced by the expletive " there ;" as, "Was this owing to there being 
twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations ?" In such construc- 
tions, after "let" with the infinitive, the subject seems to be in the objec- 
tive case ; as, "Let there be light'''' = Let light be or exist. 

12. When the subject noun takes the leading place, the predicate noun 
agrees with it in case (161, 3) ; but when the subject is dropped (0), 
and has no representative in the sentence, or when it becomes subordi- 
nate to the abridged predicate (10), the predicate noun is freed from 
any control of the subject, and remains as the predicate nominative abso- 
lute; as, "To be a scholar recpuires patient and persevering labor;" "I 
was not aware of his being a foreigner ;" "I am not sure of its being 
he." "Foreigner" refers logically to "his," but does not agree with it 
in case. This case is analogous to that of the adjective when used 
abstractly (204, 19) or absolutely; as, "To be good is to be happy.'' 
For further examples see Analysis, p. 1G7. 

183. Varieties of Partial Compounds. 

1. The parts combined may be sentence-elements (161, 2) : — 
(<7.) Two or more subjects ; •• Despair and anguish Bed the struggling soul." 
(h.) Two or more predicates ; as, " She^p/aiW, provides, expatiate*, triumphs 
there." 

The predicate affected by the .^nverning word. Predicate noiuinaih 
lute. Varieties of partial compounds. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(c.) Two or more adjective elements; as, "Supreme and undivided homage 
should be paid to goodness and truth." 

(rf.) Two or more objective elements (direct or indirect); as, 
u Who, to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, 
Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. " 

(e.) Two or more adverbial elements ; as, "Benefits should be long and grate- 
fully remembered." 

2. The parts combined may be elements of elements (159, 2). 

Any remote element may be compound; as, "The Esquimaux inhabit a cold 
and inhospitable country." But all such sentences may be regarded as simple. 

184. Varieties tf Seatenees wit* Alriflptd Frtptiitieai. 

I. When the predicate becomes a participle (182, 6). 

1. Where the subject is dropped, and the participle used as an adjective, 
(a.) Having a simple participle; as, "A man icho perseveres" = A perse- 
vering man. 

(b.) Having the participle modified; as, "There are moral principles [which 
slumber =] slumbering in the souls of the most depraved." 

2. Where the subject is dropped, and the participle used as a noun, 
(a.) Wholly as a noun ; as, " The sighing of the poor." 

(b.) With the construction of the noun, but limited like the verb; 

As subject or predicate, "Loving our neighbor as ourselves is fulfilling the 
law." 

Object of verb or preposition ; " We should avoid breaking a promise ;" 
u On approaching the house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard." 

3. When the subject is dropped, and the participle is used adverbially, 
(a.) Denoting time; as, " Having finished my letter, I returned" = When 

I had finished, &c. 

(b.) Denoting an accompanying action; "The torrent came rushing from 
the mountain." 

4. Where the subject or predicate noun is retained (182, 6), 

(a.) The subject noun in the nominative absolute; as, " The party hating 
arrived, the dinner was prepared." 

(b.) The predicate noun in the nominative absolute; as, " Being a servant 
to everybody is not so agreeable." 

(c.) The subject and predicate noun both in the nominative; as, "A youth 
being their leader, what could they do ?" 

(d.) The subject in the possessive limiting the participle used as a noun; 
as, " What do you think of his studying law ?" 

(e.) The subject in the possessive, and the predicate noun or pronoun. in the 
nominative ; as, " I am not sure of its being the judge, or of its being he." 

II. When the predicate becomes an infinitive (182, C). 

1. The infinitive without its subject or predicate noun, 

(a.) As subject of the sentence; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." 

Varieties of sentences with abridged propositions. 



SYNTAX — ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 107 

(&.) As attribute of the predicate; as, "The school is to commence on Mon- 
day." 

(c.) As both subject and attribute ; as, " To obey is to enjoy ;" " lie seems to 
sleep." 

(rf.) As adjective element; as, "Time to come ;" "A desire to go." 
(e.) As object after transitive verbs; as, " She loves to read." 
(/.) As adverbial element denoting purpose ; as, "What went ye out to see?" 
(g.) As adverbial element denoting a result (182, 7) after too, than, so, as; 
as, "He is too proud to beg;" "He is iciser than to attempt such an enter- 
prise;" "Be so good as to hear." 

2. The infinitive with its subject or predicate noun. 

(a.) "With its subject objective governed hj for, and the combination used 
as subject of the sentence; as, "For you to steal is base." 
' (6.) With the predicate noun in the nominative, the whole used as subject; 
as, " To be a scholar requires persevering labor." 

(c.) With both subject and predicate noun in the objective, the group being 
the subject of the sentence; "as, "For that boy to be a scholar is impossible;" 
or, " It is impossible for that boy to be a scholar." 

(d.) With its subject in the objective used as object of a transitive verb 
(197, 1, «.); as, "He ordered the horse to be harnessed." 

(e.) With the subject and predicate noun both in the objective, the infinitive 
being understood; as, " They considered him [to be] a traitor." 

185. Exercise. 

1. Pm*U mi tJm cm tm titrf $*nkmoe «, «md ffkamyt tfw* to complex or com- 
pound sentences : — 

Having called the captain, I was ordered to call all hands. Talent is 
serious, sober, grave, and respectable: tact is all that, and more too. It 
is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the keen smell, and 
the lively touch. The nobility and cavaliers came to the gates to receive 
him. After contemplating these objects for some time, we set off, and 
soon arrived at the foot of the great crater of the mountain. The 
scholarly Arnold, chafed by the attritions of the age, and vexed by the 
doubt-clouds which darkened upon his gallant soul, lost his trouble in 
its company, and looked through it (Pilgrim's Progress) to the Bible. It 
may be painful to dwell on such a representation. I cannot afford, at 
present, to set before you a vivid picture of the other miseries carried 
iu the train of war. 

For we 'vc sworn by our country's assault era, 
By the virgins they 've dragged from our altars, 
That, living, we will be victorious: — 
Or that, living, our death shall be glorious! 

Varieties of sentences with abridged propositions. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

188. Equivalent Elements. 

1. Whenever a sentence undergoes a change in the form of any of its 
elements, without any material change in the meaning, it is said to be 
transformed, and the new forms of the elements, which express the same, 
or nearly the same meaning, are called equivalents. 

Thus, " After he had discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to Spain" 
= Having discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to Spain. Jlere the sub- 
ordinate clause denoting time is exchanged to an equivalent abridged propo- 
sition denoting time (184, I. 3, o). 

2. We may change the form of a sentence 

(a.) By altering the grammatical construction of any of its elements; 

(b.) By supplying any element suppressed by ellipsis ; 

(c.) By transposing any element to another part of the sentence. 

3. We may alter the grammatical construction of an element in the 
following cases : — 

(a.) We may use the active for the passive voice, or the passive for the 
active ; as, " Columbus discovered America" = America teas discovered by 
Columbus. 

(b.) We may change an element of the first class (166, 1) to one of the 
second, or one of the second to one of the first; as, "A morning ride is 
refreshing" = A ride in the morning is refreshing. 

(c.) A complex sentence may be changed to a simple sentence (or a con- 
tracted complex) by abridging its subordinate clause (182, 6); as, "When the 
shower had passed, we resumed our journey" = The shower having passed, 
we resumed our journey. 

(d.) A simple sentence may be changed to a complex by expanding any of 
its elements into a proposition; as, "A merciful man is merciful to his beast" 
= A man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast. 

(e.) A complex sentence may be changed to a compound, by raising the 
subordinate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the 
subordinate connective to a coordinate ; as, " When spring comes, the flowers 
will bloom" = The spring will come, and the flowers will bloom. 

(/.) A compound sentence may be changed to a complex, by depressing one 
of its propositions into a subordinate rank ; as, " Man has a moral sense, and 
therefore he is an accountable being" = Since man has a moral sense, he is 
an accountable being. 

(g.) A question for gaining assent (148, 5) may be changed into a declara- 
tive sentence, or a declarative sentence may be changed into a question for 
gaining assent; as, "Will he plead against me with his great power ?" = 
He will not plead against me with his great power. 

(h.) Any sentence is said to be reconstructed, or recant, when the former con- 
struction is wholly disregarded ; as, " That which agrees with the will of God 

Equivalent elements. Transformation of the active to the passive voice, 
of a word to a phrase, of a complex to a simple sentence and the reverse, of 
a complex to a compound sentence and the reverse, of an interrogative to a 
declarative sentence. Reconstruction. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS — EQUIVALENTS. ] 69 

should please us" = We should be pleased with whatever is agreeable to the 
will of our heavenly Father. 

4. Without altering the grammatical construction : — 

(a.) A compound sentence may be contracted by an ellipsis cf a common 
part to su partial compound sentence; as, "Bacon was a distinguished writer, 
Shakspeare was a distinguished writer, and Butler was a distinguished writer 
*= Bacon, Shakspeare, and Butler were distinguished writers. 

(6.) Any contracted compound sentence, by supplying the ellipsis, may ba 
changed to a complete compound j as, " The king and queen were absent" = 
The king was absent, and the queen was absent. 

5. Elements transposed. The arrangement of the elements is the 
position which they take in the sentence. 

(a.) There are two kinds of arrangement; the natural or grammatical, and 
the inverted or transposed. 

(&.) In a proposition, by the natural order, the subject is placed before the 
predicate; the adjective element is placed before the noun when of the first 
class, but after the noun when of the second or third ; the objective element 
is placed after the verb which governs it ; and the adverbial element com- 
monly follows the objective element; as, "The good boy studied his geogra- 
phy attentively." " The kingdom of Sardinia is situated in the south of 
Europe." 

(c.) An. element is transposed whenever it is placed out of its natural order; 
as, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." " Copernicus these iconders told." 
" Wisely were his efforts directed." 

(d.) When the verb "to be" predicates existence, the subject is not only 
transposed, but its place is supplied by the expletive "there" (134, 11). So, 
when a phrase or clause as subject is transposed, its place is supplied by " it" 
used as an expletive (70, 4). 

187. Exercise. 

1. Use the active for the passive, and the passive for the active, in the fol- 
lowing examples, supplying the agent where omitted: — 

Wellington is buried in Westminster Abbey. Not a drum was heard, 
nor a funeral note. Energy of purpose awakens powers before unknown. 
Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? Three of your armies, 
Romans, have been slaughtered by Mark Antony. I give my hand and 
my heart to this vote. 

2. In the following, change any element of the first cl-ass, to the second; 
and the reverse : — 

A marble statue was placed in the grove. Achilles was a Grecian 
hero. The siege of Troy lasted ten years. In dreams, his song of tri- 
umph [he] heard. Strike the golden lyre again. Last came joy's 
ecstatic trial. 

A compound may be changed t<> a partial compound. Natural and inverted 
arrangement. An clement transposed. 
15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Change the following complex sentences to simple or contracted, complex 
sentences, by abridging the subordinate clauses : — 

A man who is deceitful can never be trusted. When the orator had 
finished, the assembly retired. Heard ye the whisper of the breeze, as 
soft it murmured by ? He declares that she is a slave of his. This is 
the man who deserves commendation. He went to Egypt that he might 
see the pyramids. 

4. Expand the italicized elements into clauses : 

The crocuses, blooming in the garden, attracted the bees. ' Hannibal, 
the Carthaginian general, conquered the Romans in four battles. We 
told him to leave. Caesar should have perished on the brink of the Ru- 
bicon before attempting to cross it. 

Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid 

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire. 

5. Supply the xoords omitted by ellipsis : — 

All nature is but art, unknown to thee; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see. 

All discord, harmony not understood ; 

All partial evil, universal good. 

6. Arrange the elements in their natural order : — 

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Welcome thou art to me. To each 
honor is given. In fearless freedom he arose. Whom ye ignorantly 
worship, him declare I unto you. 

7. See if the following can be improved by transposing any element : — 

I would be Diogenes, were I not Alexander. The parting soul relies 
on some fond breast. That is the question, to be, or not to be. Then 
the hills shook, riven with thunder. When creation began we know not. 



CONSTRUCTION. 

188. Definitions. 

1. Construction or synthesis consists in combining the elements 
which compose a sentence. 

2. The essential combination is that of the subject and the predicate 
(163, 8), and is,— 

(a.) A complete sentence, when its parts need no modification to express the 
full thought; as, "Jesus wept." 

(6.) An incomplete sentence, when the simple assertion is so indefinite as to 

Construction. The essential combination. Complete and incomplete sen- 
tences. , 



SYNTAX — CONSTRUCTION. 1 i 1 

need the addition of other ideas to express the full and specific thought in- 
tended ; as, "Landscape fades" (incomplete). "Now fades the glimmering 
landscape on the sight" (complete and inverted). 

3. Although in the practical processes of Construction the mind is chiefly 
occupied with the ideas which compose the thought, with little regard to 
grammatical forms, or the relative rank of the elements as they succeed each 
other, or the particular order of their collocation, yet, for elementary pur- 
poses, the pupil should begin with the principal elements, and show how all 
others arrange themselves around these. 



189. Models for Construction. 

Take the simple, but incomplete assertion, — 

King led. 
Add a word to the subject to show that a, particular king is meant, — 

The KING LED. 
Add an expression to show ivhat king. Thus, — 

The king of Prussia led. 
Add an expression to the predicate to show what he led. Thus, — 

The king of Prussia led three charges. 
Add still another expression to the predicate, to show how he led 
them. Thus, — 

The king of Prussia led three charges in person. 

Thus we have one of Macaulay's complete simple sentences. It may 
be exhibited thus, — 

£> T * . I k»i»| £>*«-"« • h "« M 

(2.) of Prussia j [ (2.) in person. 

Take again, — 

Retreat had deprived. 
Show that some particular retreat was intended. 
The Retreat had deprived. 
Whose retreat ? 

The retreat of Mr. Pitt HAD DEPRIVED. 
Deprived ivhat country ? 

The retreat of Mr. Pitt had deprived Prussia. 
Of ivhat? 

The retreat of Mr Pitt had DEPRIVED Prussia of her only friend. 
Intimate, by an addition to the predicate, that some event is to follow 
almost immediately, and show whal thai event is, — 

Scarcely had the RETREAT of Mr. Pitt DEPRIVED Prussia of her only 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



friend, when the death of Elizabeth produced an entire revolution in the poli- 
tics of the north. — Macaulay. 

Here we have a complete complex sentence. It may be exhibited 
thus, — 

C (I.) Prussia 
| (2.) of her only friend 
Retreat had deprived \ (3.) Scarcely 

(4.) when the death of 
I Elizabeth, &c. 



(1.) the ) 

(2.) of Mr. Pitt j 



190. Exercise. 

1. Add to the following incomplete sentences any ideas which will convert 
them into complete sentences : — 

Messenger brought. 
They will remember. 
Men understood. 
Poet says. 
History was traced. 
Thanks were given. 



2. Answer the questions in the following braces : — 



(1.) Particular or not ? 
(2.) Of what ? 



}• 



ORK WAS BEGUN 



(1.) By whom? 
(2.) When? 
(3.) Where? 
{ (4.) Why ? 



ANALYSIS. 

191. Definitions. 

1. Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its elements, 
and in pointing out the offices and relations of each. 

2. To analyze a sentence, we should first point out the leading ideas which 
compose the thought (147, 3, 4), taking together as elements all the words 
which are required to express a full idea. We thus obtain the subject, the 
predicate, and the additions to each. We should then separate every group 
of words into its simple elements, and, finally, every simple element of the 
second or third class, into the words which compose it. We thus reduce the 
sentence to the parts of speech. 

3. Parsing consists in naming the parts of speech into which a sentence 
is resolved by analysis, giving their modifications, relations, agreement, or 
government, and the rules for their construction. 



Analysis. 
Parsing. 



Leading ideas, the subject, predicate, and additions to each. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 173 

192. Directions for general Analysis of Sentences 

1. Read the sentence, and determine by its meaning, whether it is declara-. 
tice, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 

2. Determine the leading assertion, and point out the subject and predicate.. 

3. If any of the parts are inverted, arrange them in the natural order. 

4. If necessary, supply ellipses. 

5. Eind all the separate words or groups of words which express distinct 
ideas added to the subject, and show in what way they modify it. 

6. In the same manner dispose of all the additions to the predicate. 

7. If neither the subject, nor the predicate, nor any of the additions to 
either contains a proposition, the sentence is simple. 

8. But if either contains a proposition, the sentence is complex. 

9. If the sentence contains two or more independent assertions, it is com- 
pound, and should first be separated into its component parts, each of which 
should hi analyzed as a simple or a complex sentence. 

10. If the subject, predicate, or any of the additions to these should con- 
tain two coordinate parts, the sentence is a partial compound, and should be 
analyzed like a simple sentence, with the exception of the compound part; 
this should be named as a compound element, and then resolved into its com- 
ponent parts. 

11. If the subject, predicate, or any of the additions to either should con- 
tain a participle, or an infinitive equivalent in its use to a dependent proposi- 
tion, the sentence i3 a contracted complex, and should be analyzed like a 
simple sentence. Yet the part derived by abridging a dependent clause 
(18.3, 6) should be named, and its equivalent proposition given. 

193. Models for general Analysis. 

Note. — In this kind of analysis, the learner is to find all tbe leading ideas 
which compose the thought (133, 2), and to point out the words or groups of 
words employed to express them, as well as tho office and relation of each. 
Having thus found the subject, the predicate, and all the additions to each, 
he then determines the character of the sentence, and is prepared for the 
analysis of each group considered as an element. Take the following passage 
from Maoaulay'a Miscellanies : — 

(1.) "In 1789, the Regency Bill occupied the Upper House till the ses- 
sion was far advanced. (2.) When the king recovered, the circuits were 
beginning. (3.) The judges left town; the lords waited for the return 
of the oracles of jurisprudence; and the consequence was, that during 
,the whole year only seventeen days were given to 'he ease of Bastings. 
(-1.) It was clear that the matter would be protracted to a length unpre- 
cedented in the annals of criminal law." 

No. (1.) is a declarative sentence (143, 8). The indefinite or unmodi- 
fied assertion, is "bill occupied;" of this "bill" is the subject and 

Directions for analysis. Models. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"occupied" the predicate (150, 3, 4). To the subject is added "the" to 
show that the writer had in mind some specific bill ; also " regency" to 
show tchat specific bill was meant. To the predicate is added "the 
Upper House' to show ichich branch of parliament it occupied; also "in 
1789," which is inverted (186, 5), and comes, in the natural order, after 
"the Upper House." It is added to show in tvhat year the event oc- 
curred, and finally, the expression " till the session was far advanced," 
is added to show how long the bill occupied the House ; and as this last 
expression is a proposition, the sentence is complex. It may be exhi- 
bited thus : — 

n 1T]lfl ) ( (1.) The Upper House 

(2) Re^enc f BlLh ~ occupied 1 (2.) in 1789 

' ° y ) [ (3.) till the session was far advanced. 

No. (2.) is also a declarative sentence. The simple assertion is, 
" Circuits were beginning." It may be exhibited thus : — 

The — circuits — were beginning — when the king recovered. 
Here the last element is placed in its natural position, and as it is a 
proposition, the sentence is complex. Let the learner explain the use 
of each element as in No. 1. 

No. (8.) contains three independent assertions, each declarative, and 
the whole forming a compound sentence. The component parts are, — 
(a.) The judges left town; 

(k) The lords waited for the return of the oracles of jurisprudence; 
(c.) And the consequence was, that during the whole year, only seven- 
teen days were given to the case of Hastings. 

The first and second parts are simple sentences, joined by "and" 
understood, and standing thus : — 
The — judges — left — town. 

The — lords — waited — for the return of the oracles of jurisprudence. 
The third part is a complex sentence, connected to the preceding by 
"and," and is thus exhibited: — 

The — consequence — was, that— &c., to the end. 

194. Directions for the Analysis of Elements. 

Note. — This analysis gives the office and relation of all the subordinate 
ideas, and of all the words in the sentence ; that in 193 gives the relation 
of all the prominent ideas. 

1. Resolve the sentence as in 193 ; and then, regarding each part as 
an element, classify it as in (158, 2, 3, &c). 

2. If any element contains but one word, it is completely reduced, 
and may then be parsed (191, 3). 

Directions for analyzing elements. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 1 ] 5 

8. If an element containing more than one word is simple (167, 163) 
it must be & phrase or a clause, and is to be still further analyzed by- 
pointing out 

(a.) The connective, showing what part it joins. 

(6.) The part which expresses the idea, — in case of the phrase, the ohjcct ; 
in case of the clause, the subject and predicate. 

4. If an element is complex or compound, reduce it to its simple ele- 
ments, and then proceed as in 2 or 3 above. 

' 5. In case of a complex element, point out and dispose of the principal 
element or basis (172, 4, 5) ; then each of the others in the order of their 
rank (159). 

6. In case of a compound element, separate it into its component 
simple elements, point out and classify the coordinate conjunction which 
joins them, and then dispose of each as in 2 or 3 above. 

7. Thus the sentence is reduced by simple and methodical steps to 
the parts of speech which enter into it. These all, cr a part, may now 
be parsed in the order of their rank in construction, or in any other 
order. 

195. Models for the Analysis of Sentences and their Elements. 

Note. — In these examples, the learner is expected to point out the subject 
and the predicate, and, if necessary, reduce each to the single words which 
compose it ; next, each of the additions to the subject, reducing it as directed 
in (194, 3) above, and then each addition to the predicate. 

1. " George writes." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; dcclaratire, 
because it declares something; George is the subject, because it is that of 
which the action "writes" is affirmed; writes is the predicate, because it is 
that which is affirmed of " George." 

It may be exhibited thus : — ■ 

George — writes. 

2. " The summer shower falls gently." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; declarative, 
because it declares something; shower is tbe simple or grammatical subject .- it 
is simply that of which something is affirmed: falls is the simple or gram- 
matidal predicate, becauso it is that which is affirmed of •• Bhowers.** Tho 
subject is limited by summer, a simple adjective element of the lirst c] 
adjective, because it is used to limit a noun; of tho jirsi class, because i; is a 
single word joined directly to the subject, without a connective; it limil 
answering the question "What kind oft" it excludes the idea of all Bhowers 
falling at any other time than summer; it is a simple element, because nothing ■ 
is added to it. The subject is also limited by th<; a simple adjeeiive element 
of the first class; it limits by showing that some particular shower is meant. 

Models. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The summer shower is the complex or logical subject, because it is the gram- 
matical subject with all its limitations. The predicate is limited by gent///, a 
simple adverbial element of the first class ; it is adverbial, because it is added 
to a verb j it denotes manner ; of the first clans, because it is a single word 
joined directly to the predicate without a connective; it limits by answering 
the question "How?" it excludes the idea of all showers which do not fall 
gently; it is simple, because nothing is added to it ; falls gently is the complex 
or logical predicate, because it is the grammatical predicate with all its 
Limitations. 

It stands thus : — 

(1.) The ) 

;„ ' )■ shower — falls — gently. 

(2.) summer J ° J 

Note. — The same proposition may be analyzed briefly in the following 
manner : — 

It is a simple declarative sentence; the summer shower is the logical subject; 
shower is the grammatical subject ; it is limited by the two simple adjective 
elements of the first class, the and summer ; falls gently is the logical predicate ; 
falls is the grammatical predicate, and is limited by a simple adverbial ele- 
ment of the first class, gently. 

Note. — When the subject or predicate is not modified, the logical subject 
or predicate is the same as the grammatical. But it is not necessary to make 
any distinction in such cases ; simply say, subject or predicate. 

3. "A very high hill overlooks an extensive valley." 
It is a simple declarative sentence (why ?) ; 

Hill is the simple subject (why ?) ; A very high hill is the complex subject 
(why ?) ; 

Overlooks is the simple predicate (why ?) ; Overlooks an extensive valley is 
the complex predicate (why?) ; 

Hill is limited by a, a simple adjective element of the first class, and by 
very high, a complex adjective element of the first class, showing what kind 
of hill; adjective, because it limits a noun; complex, because the simple ele- 
ment high is itself limited by very, a simple adverbial element of the first 
class ; of the first class, because the basis high is a single word joined without 
a connective to loll. 

Overlooks is limited by an extensive valley, a complex objective element of 
the first class, showing what it overlooks ; valley is the basis or principal part 
of the objective element, and is limited by an and extensive, simple adjective 
elements of the first class. (Why ?) 

It is exhibited thus : — 

(!•) A "j „ 

, n ( ,. , }■ HILL — OVERLOOKS — an extensive valley. 

(2.) very high j 

4. "To steal is base." 

It is a simple declarative sentence. 

To steal is the subject (why?). It is an element of the second class, since 
it has one word (steal) to express an idea, and another (to) to represent its 

relation. 



Models. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 177 

Is base is the predicate (why ?). It is of the second class, having the attri- 
bute base to express the predicate idea, and is, the copula, to represent its 
relation [predicate relation). 

Note. — This thorough and minute method of analysis should be often re- 
sorted to, for the purpose of giving the learner accurate ideas of the elements 
and their relations. When these are understood, the general (193) and brief 
method should be followed. 

5. "Who was the author of Junius's Letters has never been satisfac- 
torily determined." 

It may be exhibited thus : — 

f th 1 ( never 

Who was author ■! - , . T , , Y has been determined \ satisfac- 

[ of Junius s Letters — J ., 

It is a complex declarative sentence ; complex, because it contains a prin- 
cipal and a subordinate proposition; declarative, because it expresses a decla- 
ration. The entire sentence (since the subject is the subordinate clause) is 
the principal proposition, and the subject of the sentence, namely, "Who was 
the author of Junius's Letters," is the subordinate substantive proposition, 
"Who was author," is the simple, and "Who teas the author of Junius's Let- 
ters," the complex subject. 

Has been determined is the simple, and has never been satisfactorily deter- 
mined is the logical predicate. Has been determined is modified by never and 
satisfactorily (describe them). 

Who is both the subject and connective of the subordinate clause; as con- 
nective, it is subordinate, but as a subject cannot depend on any superior 
term, there is nothing to which the subordinate clause can be joined : henco 
who is here a connective without an antecedent term. As a pronoun, it is an 
interrogative used in a subordinate clause (78, 4), and hence has no definite 
antecedent. 

Was author the simple, and was the author of Junius's Letters is the com- 
plex predicate; author is limited by the and by of Junius's Letters. 

G. " A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks for it in vain 
elsewhere." 
Thus :— 

I ((1.) for it 

; "( , . , < man seeks < (2.) in vain 

(2.) who finds not satisfaction in himself j J ^ \ 1 1 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dissimilar clauses. "A 
man seeks for it in vain elsewhere" is the principal, and •• who linds uot satis- 
faction in himself," is the subordinate adjective clause. 

Man is the subject of the principal clause 

Seel's is the predicate, 

The subject is limited by "a," also by the adjective clause, "who finds not 
satisfaction in himself," which describee ••man." 

The complex Bubjeol is •• A man who finds not satisfaction in himself." 

The predicate is limited by " for it." " in vain." and ••elsewhere." 

Models. 
M 



178 ENCJLIill GRAMMAR. 

The complex predicate is, "seeks for it in vain elsewhere." 

Who is the subject of the adjective clause. 

Find* is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited, first, by "not;" secondly, by "satisfaction •" and 
thirdly, by " in himself." 

Who is a relative pronoun, of tbe third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, according to Rule V. ; it is the subject of the proposition, " who buds."' 
&c, according to Rule I., and connects this proposition with "man," tbe 
subject of the principal clause, according to Rule XV. 

7. "When the wicked are multiplied, transgression increaseth." 
Thus :— 

Transgression increaseth — when the wicked are multiplied. 

It is a complex sentence. (Why?) "Transgression increaseth" is the 
principal, and " when the wicked are multiplied," the subordinate clause. 

Transgression is the subject of the principal clause. 

Increaseth is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," an adverbial 
clause denoting time. (See Rule IX.) The complex predicate is, "increaseth 
when the wicked are multiplied." 

Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Are multiplied is the predicate. 

When is a subordinate connective (conjunctive adverb of time), and joins 
tbe adverbial clause, which it introduces, to tbe predicate of the principal 
clause, according to E,ule XV. It limits " are multiplied" and " increaseth," 
according to Rule IX. 

8. "Whatever is, is right." 

It is a complex sentence. "Whatever (as antecedent) is right," is tbe 
principal clause, and "whatever (as relative) is," is the subordinate clause. 
" Whatever" = anything is the subject of tbe principal clause, and "is right" 
is the predicate. The subject " whatever" = anything, is limited by tbe sub- 
ordinate clause "whatever is" = that is, of which "whatever" is the subject, 
and "is" is the predicate. The whole being equivalent to "Anything that 
is, is right." 

9. "The Cynic who twitted Aristippus, by observing that the philo- 
sopher who could dine on herbs might despise the company of a king, 
was well replied to by Aristippus, when he remarked, that the philoso- 
pher who could enjoy the company of a king might also despise a 
dinner of herbs." 

This is a complex sentence, containing seven clauses,. one principal, and 
six subordinate. 

(1.) The Cynic teas well re-plied to by Aristippus, 

(2.) Who twitted Aristippus by observing, 

(3.) That the philosopher might despise the company of a king, 

(4.) Who could dine on herbs, 

(5.) When he remarked, 

Models. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 179 

(6.) That the philosopher might also despise a dinner of herbs, 
(7.) \V1w could enjoy the company of a king. 

The first is the principal clause, and the others are subordinate. 

Cynic is the subject of the principal clause. 

Was replied to is the predicate. 

The subject, Cynic, is limited by "who twitted Aristippus by observing," 
&c, a complex adjective element of the third class ; "who" is the connective 
and subject, "twitted" is the predicate, and is limited, first, by "Aristippus," 
a simple objective element of the first class, and also by "by observing that 
the philosopher might despise the company of a king," a complex adverbial 
element of the second class; "by observing" is the basis, "by" is the con- 
nective, and "observing" is the object; " observing" is limited by "that the 
philosopher might despise the company of a king," a complex objective ele- 
ment of the third class, of which " that" is the connective ; " philosopher" is 
the subject, and is limited by " who could dine on_ herbs," an adjective element 
of the third class ; " might despise" is the predicate, and is limited by " the 
company of a king," a complex objective element of the first class. 

The predicate, was replied to, is limited, first, by " well," a simple adverbial 
element of the first class, and by "by Aristippus," an adverbial element of 
the second class, and also by the clause "when he remarked, that the philoso- 
pher," &c, a complex adverbial element of the third class, of which "when" 
is the connective, "he" is the subject, and " remarked" is the predicate ; "re- 
marked" is limited by "that the philosopher," &c, a complex objective ele- 
ment of the third class, of which " that" is the connective, " philosopher" is 
the subject, " the philosopher who could enjoy the company of a king," is the 
logical subject, "might despise" is the predicate, and "might also despise a 
dinner of herbs" is the logical predicate ; the subject, " philosopher," is limited 
by the clause "who could enjoy the company of a king," a complex adjective 
element of the third class, of which "who" is the connective and subject, 
"could enjoy" is the predicate, and is limited by "the company of a king," 
a complex objective element of the first class ; the predicate " might despise" 
is limited by " a dinner of herbs," a complex objective element of the first 
class, of which "dinner" is the basis, and is limited by "of herbs," a simple 
adjective element of the second class. 

10. "A ship gliding over the waves, is a beautiful object." 

This is a simple sentence, or, more properly, a contracted complex. 

Ship is the simple, and 

A ship gliding over the waves is the complex subject. 

Is object is the simple, and 

Is a beautiful object is the complex predicate. 

The subject, ship, is limited by " gliding over the waves." a complex adjec- 
tive clement of the firsl class; it ia equivalent to "which glides over the 
waves," and is therefore an abridged proposition, obtained by dropping the 
subject and connective •• which," and changing "glides," the predicate, into 
the participle "gliding." 

Object is limited by " a" and " beautiful." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers." 
It is a partial or contracted compound sentence. 

Socrates and Plato form the compound subject, because they are united by 
"and," and have a common predicate, "were philosophers." 

The subject is not limited. 

The predicate is limited by "distinguished," an adjective element of the 
first class, used to describe " philosophers." 

And is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two simple subjects, ac- 
cording to Rule XI. 

12. " If men praise your efforts, suspect their judgment ; if they cen- 
sure them, your own." 

It is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate parts ; each part 
consisting of a principal and a subordinate clause. 

The natural order would be, " Suspect the judgment of men, if they praise 
your efforts ; your own, if they censure them." 

There is an ellipsis of the principal clause in the second part ; this, if sup- 
plied, would be, " If they censure them, suspect your own judgment." 

In the first part, " suspect their judgment" is the principal clause, and, " if 
men praise your efforts" the subordinate. In the second part, after the ellip- 
sis is supplied, "suspect your own judgment" is the principal clause, and "if 
they censure them" is the subordinate. " You" (understood) is the subject 
of the principal clause in the first part, " suspect" is the predicate ; it is lim- 
ited, first, by " their judgment," a complex objective element of the first class, 
used to answer the question " What ?" and also by " if men praise your efforts," 
an adverbial element of the third class, denoting condition. (Analyze accord- 
ing to the model.) 

"You" (understood) is the subject of the principal clause in the second 
part; "suspect" is the predicate; it is limited by "your own judgment," a 
complex objective element of the first class, and also by "if they censure 
them," an adverbial element of the third class, denoting condition, <fcc. 

The two coordinate parts of the sentence are connected by the adversative 
conjunction " but" understood, which denotes opposition or contrast. 

196. Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the models: — 

A noble income, nobly expended, is no common sight. 

Human foresight often leaves its proudest possessor only a choice of 
evils. 

Applause is the spur of noble minds ; the end and aim of weak ones. 

Grant graciously what you cannot refuse safely. 

Most men know what they hate ; few what they love. 

He who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of them, must ex- 
pect that they will secretly tell his enemies much that they do not think 
of him. 

Models. 



SYNTAX — RULES. 181 

That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, that they arc 
improved by his virtues, and that the tone of morals rises high when 
he that leads the band is perfect, are truths admitted with exultation, 
and felt with honest pride. 

Highly elated by his unexpected good fortune, he returned home. 
Saving carefully the fruits of his labor, he at length was able to pur- 
chase a farm. 

A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country. 



SYNTAX OF -WORDS. 
197. Rules for Construction. 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a proposi- 
tion, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a propo- 
sition, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in per- 
son, number, and gender. 

Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun 
or pronoun. 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify 
another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case. 

Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun by 
denoting possession, must be in the possessive case. 

Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a transi- 
tive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case. 

Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs. 

Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the interjec- 
tion, have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sen- 
tence. 

Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect similar 
elements. 

Rules, — Subject, Attribute, Pronoun, Verb, Adjciivo. Xoun in apposition, 
— in the possessive — in the objective, — Adverbs, Case independent* Interjec- 
tions, Coordinate conjunctions. 
16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or more 
nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 

(1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in the plural 
number. 

(2.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must be of the same 
number as that which stands next to it. 

(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the number 
of that one. 

Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of its 
object to the word on which the latter depends. 

Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a prepo- 
sition must be in the objective case. 

Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dissimilar 
elements. 

Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of the noun, 
with the signification and limitations of the verb, and, when de- 
pendent, is governed by the word which it limits. 

Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of adjectives 
and nouns, and are limited like verbs. 



RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS. 

198. The Subject. 

1. Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a propo- 
sition must be in the nominative case; as, ''Ccesar conquered 
Gaul;" "/ have found a man who can teach all that is necessary 
to be known." 

(a.) A letter, symbol, phrase, or clause, when used as the subject, must 
be considered as a noun in the nominative singular ; as, " A is a vowel ;" 
" -|- is the sign of addition;" " To steal is base;" '■'■That you have 
wronged me doth appear in this." 

(b.) A noun or pronoun, as the subject of an abridged proposition, is 
in the nominative absolute with a participle (216, 2), when its case depends 
upon no other word; but in the objective with an infinitive when its case 
depends upon a verb or a preposition; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue 

Rules, — Nouns joined by Coordinate conjunctions. Prepositions, Object of 
a preposition, Subordinate connectives, Infinitives, Participles. The subject 
nominative. A letter, symbol, Ac. Nominative absolute. 



SYNTAX — WORDS— THE SUBJECT. 183 

is lost;" " They requested him to leave;" " For you to be released, and 
for me to be burdened, is obviously unjust." 

2. A noun or pronoun may be in tbe nominative, though not the subject, 
(1.) when used in the predicate (200, 1); (2.) when in apposition with the 
subject, or the predicate nominative (203, 1« (3.) when used to denote the 
person addressed (214) ; (4.) when used in a mere exclamation (214) ; (5.) when 
used in certain cases as subject or predicate in abridged propositions (200, b.). 

3. In the imperative mode, the subject is always a pronoun of the second 
person, even when the compellative (157, 3) is expressed, and is usually 
omitted ; as, " Son, arise ;" " Go, my friend." It is also often omitted after 
but, when, while, if, and though ; also after comparisons made by as, and than ; 
as, " We shall go, if [it is] possible ;" " Though poor, luxurious ; though sub- 
missive, vain ;" " There is no heart but [what, or it] must feel them ;" " The 
disaffection was spread far wider than was supposed." 

4. The subject is commonly placed before the predicate, but in the impera- 
tive mode, in direct questions, in exclamatory sentences, in suppositions with- 
out a connective, in sentences arranged for rhetorical effect, in sentences in- 
troduced by the expletives " there" and " it," and in the governing clause of 
a direct quotation (170, 1), either the verb or its auxiliary precedes the subject; 
as, " Go ye into all the world, and preach [?/e] the gospel to every creature ;" 
" Both my father yet live ?" " How is the great fallen !" " Were I not Alex- 
ander, I would be Diogenes ;" " Great is Diana of the Ephesians ;" " Because 
there was much water there." "It is natural to man," said Patrick Henry, 
" to indulge in the illusions of hope." 

5. When the subject of a sentence is a phrase or a clause, the most common 
arrangement is to place the subject after the predicate (4.) and fill its vacant 
place by the expletive "it," a word adapted to this idiom, but not necessary 
to the construction. When the subject is before the predicate, the expletive 
should not be used. The following sentence, therefore, is wrong, — " That the 
soul be without knowledge, it is not good." The following sentences are 
faulty for want of the expletive, because which, the object of the infinitive 
subject, is erroneously made subject of the following verb. "Why do ye that 
which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days ?" " We have done that 
which [it] was our duty to do." 

6. The object of the verb in the active voice, becomes its subject in the pas- 
sive voice; as, "John granted the Magna Charta" = "The Magna Charta 
was granted by John." 

Caution I. Never use the objective as the subject of a finite verb. Say, / 
did it, — not Me did it. 

Note. — This caution should bo specially heeded in the construction of sub- 
jects consisting of a personal pronoun used jointly with a noun or other 
pronoun, in the use of the relativo and interrogative pronouns, in the as ■ of 
;i lioun or pronoun as a term of comparison after than or ax, mid in the answi rs 
to questions. Sco examples (199, 3). 

The nominativo not always subject. Subject understood. Subject s/tex 
lac predicate. Subject and object with the active, or passive voice. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

199. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the subjects : — 
Those who would give the highest training to the mind, must furnish 
to it deeds of excellence, tales of heroism. How beautiful an object is 
a tree growing with all its foliage, freely and fairly on a sheltered lawn ! 
Ye hills, lift up your voices ; let the shaggy woods upon your summits 
wave with adoration. Has reason fled from our borders ? Have we 
ceased to reflect ? It is madness to suppose that the Union can be pre- 
served by force. There is great economy in giving pleasure to children. 
A trifling gift, a little kindness, goes a great way and is long remem- 
bered. It is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of hope. To 
err is human, to forgive divine. It was said that fifty guineas had been 
paid for a single ticket. It was determined to examine witnesses at the 
bar of the Commons. The doves besought the hawk to defend them. 
The captain commanded his company to march. 

Model I. " Happiness depends upon the prudent constitution 
of the habits." — Paley. 

This is a simple sentence, containing three sentence-elements. 

(a.) The subject, — "happiness." 

(Z/.) The predicate, — "depends;" and 

(c.) An adverbial element, — "upon the constitution of the habits." 

The adverbial element is complex, — having "upon constitution" for 
its basis or principal element, — " upon" being the connective, and " con- 
stitution" the object, — hence, it is of the second class. "Constitution" 
is limited by "the" and "of the habits," both adjective elements, — one 
of the first, and the other of the second class. 

" Happiness" is a common noun, third, sing. neut. nom. and is used 
as the subject. Rule I. 

Model II. " It is evident that his conduct was directed by a 
profound policy. " — Maca ulay. 

This is a complex sentence. 

Arranged in the natural order, it would be, — "That his conduct was 
directed by a profound policy is evident (198, 5)." In either form it 
contains two general elements. 

(a.) The subject, — "That his conduct was directed by a profound 
policy." 

(b.) The predicate— "is evident." 

The subject in either form, is an element of the third class, having 
"that" for a connective, serving here to render the proposition subordi- 
nate, without joining it to a superior term (223, 2) ; it is used as a noun, 



SYNTAX — WORDS — THE SUBJECT. 185 

third, sing, neut., and since it is the subject, it must be in the nomina- 
tive case, by Rule I. a. It is also represented by the expletive "it" 
(70, 4), of the same person, number, gender, and case as the clause, 
and is grammatically pleonastic, but is essential to this peculiar form, 
and is used to introduce the sentence in an agreeable way. 

The predicate is of the second class, having "is" for the copula or 
connective, and "evident" for the attribute. 

Model III. " The patriots not dispersing, Pitcairn ordered 
his men to fire/' 

This is a contracted complex sentence, that is, a simple sentence 
having abridged propositions for its elements. It contains four sentence- 
elements, — 

(a.) The subject — "Pitcairn" a 

(b.) The predicate — "ordered." 

(c.) Objective element — "his men to fire." 

(d.) Adverbial element — "the patriots not dispersing. 

The subject is not modified. The predicate is modified by the double 
object, " his men to fire" (212, 1, a.). " Men" is the direct, and " to fire," 
the attributive object. The combination is derived from the objective 
proposition " that his men should fire" — "men" being the subject, and 
" should fire" the predicate. 

"Men" is a common noun, third person, plural number, masculine 
gender, and is virtually the subject of "to fire," by (193, 1, b.); but 
since the proposition is abridged (132, 6), it becomes, with "to fire," 
the object of "ordered." "To fire," is a regular intransitive (82, 11) 
verb, infinitive mode, present tense, and is used as a noun to form the 
attributive object of " ordered." 

The predicate is further modified by •" the patriots not dispersing." 
an abridged proposition equivalent to " as the patriots did not disperse," 
and is used to show the occasion or reason for the order. In the full 
form, it would be connected with "ordered" by "as;" but in the 
abridged form, it is grammatically (not logically) (147, 4) set free, and 
hence is said to be absolute, — " patriots," the subject, still remaining in 
the nominative by (198, 1, b.), or Rule X., (/. 

2. Construct or select examples to illustrate the subject in cither form, as 
given in the Models. 

3. Correct, by the Caution, the following examples, and any others UJcc 
them tohich you may speak or hear. 

You and me will go together. Ilim that is studious will improve. 
She found the place sooner than us. Them that .seek wisdom will be 
wise. They are people whom one would think might be trusted. Who 

Models. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

told you the story ? Him and her. I know it as well as him or her. 
Who saw the eclipse V Us. They have more friends than me. Them 
are the ones. My brother is a much better singer than him. We are 
not so much to be blamed as him that upset the boat. Who came in at 
the door? Me. Scotland and thee did each in other live. Avoid whom- 
soever is in a passion. There were present only him and me. You are 
in fault and not me. I know not whom are expected. 

Model. — "You and me will go together" is incorrect, because the 
objective pronoun ms is made the subject of the verb will go ; but by 
Caution I., the objective should never be used as the subject of a finite 
verb. Correct, "You and I will go together." 



200. A Noun or Pronoun as Attribute. 

1. Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a 
proposition must be in the nominative case; as, " I am he;" "I, 
who walk queen of the gods." 

(er.) A letter, mark, phrase, or clause, used substantively as the attri- 
bute of a proposition, must be regarded as a noun in the nominative 
case; as, "That letter is A;" "To steal is to purloin;" "A fourth mis- 
take in relation to happiness is, that we make our provision only for the 
present xoorld. " — Buckminster. 

{h.) A noun or pronoun used as the attribute in an abridged proposi- 
tion, after the participle or the infinitive of the copula, must agree in 
case with the subject, or with any equivalent of the subject to which the 
abridged expression may be joined ; except, when the subject is changed 
to the possessive, or is wholly dropped from the sentence, it remains in 
the predicate nominative absolute. 

Examples. — (1.) In the nominative after a participle to agree with its sub- 
ject; as, "You being the captain, I must obey" = Since you are the cap- 
tain, &c. 

(2.) In the objective after the participle to agree with an equivalent of the 
subject; as, "Ananias descended with the elders, and with a certain orator 
[who was] named Tertullus ;" who, the true subject, being dropped by (182, 6). 

(3.) In the objective case after the infinitive to agree with the subject; as, 
"I believed him to be a traitor" = I believed that he was a traitor. 

(4.) In the nominative absolute after the participle preceded by the possessive 
of the subject; as, " I was not aware of his being a foreigner" = I was not 
aware that he was a. foreigner. 

(5.) In the nominative absolute after the participle or infinitive, the subject 
of the full proposition having no equivalent, and being wholly dropped from 
the sentence; as, "To be a king is to be a sovereign ;" "Being a scholar is 

The attribute. A letter, mark, <fcc. The attribute in abridged propositions. 



SYNTAX — WORDS— THE ATTRIBUTE. 187 

not being an idler." See a parallel construction of the predicate adjective 
(205, 19). 

2. A noun or pronoun is the attribute of a proposition when it is used with 
the copula, or any copulative verb (32, 9), to form the predicate. It usually 
denotes the same person or thing as the subject, and when it denotes a per- 
son, it agrees with the subject not only in case, but in gender and number. 
In the case of copulative verbs, the predicate seems to have two attributes; 
the one the participle or attributive part of the verb,, and the other the fol- 
lowing noun or adjective; a3, "He was called John." "The boy was made 

3. " It," used in a vague sense, not unlike the algebraic symbol for an 
unknown quantity, is made the subject representing a noun or pronoun as 
attribute in any number, person, or gender; as, "It is I ;" "It is they;" "It 
is James ;" " It is she." 

4. The number and person of the verb are affected by the subject, and not 
by the predicate noun; as, "Apples are fruit;" "His meat teas (not were) 
locusts and wild honey." 

5. After the copulative verbs regard, consider, reckon, name, and some others, 
the connective "as" precedes the attribute when the verb is passive, and the 
attributive object when it is active, to denote the capacity in which the subject 
or direct object is to be taken; as, "He was regarded as an able advocate ;" 
" They regarded him as an able advocate." 

6. The predicate nominative is commonly placed after the verb, and the 
subject nominative lefore it; but in questions both direct and indirect, in 
poetry, and in sentences arranged for rhetorical effect, this order is changed ; 
as, "Is it I?" " Who is he?" "And / thy victim now remain;" "I was eyes 
to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." 

7. The subject may be a noun, and the attribute a clause, as in (199, 1, a.), 
or the subject may be a clause, and the attribute a noun in the same case as 
the clause; as, "Will he do it? is the question." 

Caution I. Never use the objective as the attribute after a finite verb, 
nor the nominative after an infinitive preceded by its objective subject. Say, 
" It is /," — not It is me; " I knew it to be him," — not I knew it to be he. 

Caution II. Avoid constructions in which the tiling denoted by the subject 
tt falsely identified by the attribute. Say, "The noun James is the name 
of the actor," — not " The noun James is the actor." 



201. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the ATTmr.rTKs : — 
John was called the beloved disciple. Rhetoric, logic, ami grammar 
are three arts that, should always walk hand in hand. Embarrassed, 
Obscure, and feeble sentences are. generally, if m.t always, the 

A noun or pronoun as attribute. "It." "As," after copulative verb?. 
Predicate nominative sometimes beforo the verb. Subject or attributo a clause. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of embarrassed, obscure, arid feeble thought. What is man, that thou 
art mindful of him? He returned a friend, "who came a foe. It still 
remains a monument of his greatness. Warsaw was the capital of Po- 
land. Mecca is regarded by the Mohammedans as (200, 5) a holy city. 
The inhabitants of the Arabian deserts are styled Bedouins. 

A second mistake upon the subject of happiness is, that it is to be 
found in prosperity. The truth is, that of the objects of human acqui- 
sition, very few are, beyond a certain limit, even the means of happiness. 
To be an Englishman in Leaden, a frnekmai in f aria, a Spaniard im 
Madrid, i« ne eary Matter ; and j%t it is neeewary. I did not dream of 
its being he. Do you take it to be her ? For him ever to become a cor- 
rect writer is out of the question. Widowhood is the state of being a 
widow. A second objection raised against our Lord's being the Son of 
God and King of Israel, was taken from his mean condition." 

jiobel I. " Taleat is s«M*«tki»g, feat taft ia every tkia g." — 
L&ndort Alias. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate clauses. 

"Talent is something" is the first, and "tact is every thing"' is the 
second; it is joined to the first by "but," a coordinate adversative con- 
junction, used here to denote a contrast between the two thoughts. 
" Something" is a common noun, of the third pers. — sing. num. — neut, 
gen. and in the nominative case, being used as the attribute of the 
proposition "Talent is something," according to Rule II. Repeal it. 

In the same manner parse " tiling," in the second clause. 

Model II. " Tke reason i«, tkat tie outward iigag ef a dail 
msa aud a wilt wan, are tke n»e." — Sydney Mmitk. 

This is a complex sentence. "Reason" is the simple, and "the 
reason" the complex subject. The rest of the sentence, "is, that the 
outward signs, &c," is the predicate; "is" is the copula, and t lie sub- 
stantive clause, "that the outward signs of a dull man and a wise man 
are the same," is the attribute, and is used as a noun in the nominative 
case, according to Rule II., a. The attribute is an element of the third 
class, having "that" for its connective, and "signs" for its simple sub- 
ject, and "are same" for its simple predicate. "The outward signs 
of a dull man and a wise man" is the complex subject, — and " are the 
same," the complex predicate. Let the learner point out the modifi- 
cations of the simple subject. "That," in this case (see 199, Model II.), 
may be considered as joining the clause as a. dependent element to the 
subject, while the copula joins it only as a predicated element. If the 
clause were assumed of the subject, "that" would be the only connect- 
ive. Thus, " The reason that the butward signs, &c." The preposition 

Models. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — THE ATTRIBUTE. 189 

has a similar connection when a phrase becomes the attribute ; as, " The 
boy is in the field" Compare " The boy in the field." 

Model III. " It is almost as hard a thing to be a poet in 
despite of fortune, as it is in despite of nature." — Cowley. 

This is a complex sentence, consisting of one principal and one sub- 
ordinate clause. It is introduced by the expletive "it," which is dis- 
posed of as in Model II., 199. Arranged grammatically, it stands, — 
" To be a poet in despite of fortune, is almost as hard a thing as it is in 
despite of nature." The logical subject is, "to be a poet in despite of 
fortune;' the logical predicate is, "is almost as hard a thing as [to be 
a poet] is in despite of nature." The grammatical subject is "to be a 
poet," and is limited by the complex phrase "in despite of fortune." 
This is an adverbial element, since it limits not "poet," but the whole 
idea, "to be a poet." The copula is "is," the simple attribute, "thing;" 
it is parsed as in Model I. The attribute "thing" is limited by "a," 
and by "as hard as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature," a complex 
adjective element; it is of the first class, since the basis is "hard;" it 
is complex, since the basis is limited by "as [to be a poet] is in 
despite of nature," which shows a comparison between two things, or 
the two conditions of being a poet, and would be a comparison of 
equality, but for the effect of "almost." In the subordinate clause, 
"as" is the connective, and joins the adverbial clause to "hard," — the 
connection is strengthened by the correlative adverb "as" in the prin- 
cipal clause. The subordinate clause is introduced by the expletive 
"it," and when completed and arranged grammatically, stands " [to be 
a poet] in despite of nature is [hard]." This clause is analyzed like 
the principal clause. 

"Poet" is a part of the grammatical subject of both clauses; "to 
be" is not the grammatical subject, since it no more expresses an idea 
than does the copula (80, 5). The simple idea is, "to be a poet." 

"Poet" is a common noun, 3d pers. sing. masc. nom. and is used as 
the attribute of an abridged proposition, namely, "That one should be 
a poet in despite of fortune, &o." = " To be a poet in despite of fortune, 
&c." The subject "one" is entirely dropped from the sentence in 
abridging the proposition, and hence by Pule II., 1, b., "poet" is in 
the predicate nominative absolute. See 216, 1, Model V. 

2. Construct, analyze, and parse examples of your own similar to (he pre- 
ceding. 

3. Correct by the Cautions, not only the following examples, but any other 
similar ones heard in conversation : — 

Is it me ? No; hut it is him. [ never thought of its being him ; I 
took ii to be she. Whom do you think it isJ it may have been her, 

Models. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but I always supposed it to be he. Whom do people say it is ? They 
say they do not know whom it is. Who do you think it is ? I think it 
is them. I cannot believe it to be he. If I were him, I would know 
whom it is. If I had been sure of its being her, I should have been 
present. 

The noun is the agent and the verb is the action. What part of 
speech is each boy in this room? The first person is the speaker. The 
animal horse is a noun. To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime 
altogether unpardonable, /is the first person. " Have written" is the 
present perfect tense. 

Models. "It is her" is incorrect, because the attribute "her" is in 
the objective case; but by Caution I. the attribute of a finite verb should 
never be in the objective case. It should be, "It is she." 

"I took it to be he," is incorrect, because the nominative "lie" fol- 
lows the infinitive "to be," preceded by its objective subject "it." By 
Caution I. it should be, " I took it to b 3 him." 

"You is the second person" is incorrect, because "you" being a pro- 
noun is not a person, and hence is falsely identified by "person." By 
Caution II. we should avoid such constructions. It should be, "You 
is of the second person," that is, a pronoun of the second person. 



202. Agreement of the Pronoun. 

1. Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
person, number, and gender; as, " Those icJw are most consistent 
are not more unlike to others, than tlicy are to themselves." 

(a.) A pronoun relating to a collective noun in the singular, is put in 
the neuter singular, when the noun denotes tinity, but in the masculine 
or feminine plural, when it denotes plurality; as, "A civilized people 
has no right to violate its solemn obligations, because the other party is 
uncivilized;" "The committee having made their report, were dis- 
charged." 

(£. ) A pronoun relating to an antecedent consisting of coordinate 
terms, agrees with it by Rule XII. See also (220, 1, a. b., &c). 

2. Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown to the 
speaker; and hence the person, number, and gender must be assumed till the 
person or thing inquired for becomes known. Although the pronoun may not 
agree with the true antecedent, it does agree, by rule, with the assumed, and 
consistency should be preserved in every reference to it. The following sen- 
tence is wrong, — 'fcWho icas not charmed with the music tlicy heard?" Was 
should be changed to were, or they to he. Again, a pronoun relating to a 
singular antecedent limited by many a is commonly put in the plural; as, "I 

The pronoun, — relating to a collective noun — to coordinate terms. Inter- 
rogatives relate to an assumed object. Pronouns without an antecedent. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — PRONOUNS. 191 

have heard many an act of devotion in my life, had heaven vouchsafed me 
grace to profit by them."— Scott. 

3. The pronoun " it," when used as in (200, 3) has no antecedent ; as, " It 
rains;" "It is David." "It" is often used to refer to a young child, or to 
animals, when the sex is disregarded ; as, " The true friend of the child is he 
who regards its future well-being;" "The raccoon feeds chiefly by night, 
keeping in its hole during the day." As an expletive, "it" either has no 
antecedent, as, " Come and trip it as you go," or it refers to some phrase or 
clause transposed from its natural position ; as, " It is good for me to be 
afflicted." See 70, 4. 

4. A pronoun sometimes refers (apparently contrary to the general rule) 
to a noun, taken from its ordinary signification ; as, " We studied Wood- 
bridge's Elements of Geography on its first appearance before the public." 
" When we say books is a noun, we classify it," that is, the word, not the objects 
themselves ; " Herod, xchich (not icho) is another name for cruelty." 

5. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the third person, 
which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of they, referring to 
person, any one, or some one, has been adopted even by respectable writers to 
conceal the gender, or to avoid an awkward use of he or she, thus : " If any 
one would test these rules for the preservation of health, they (he or she) must 
persevere in all states of the weather." The want of such a pronoun is still 
more apparent when the speaker has a definite person before his mind, and 
wishes to conceal the gender ; thus : " The person who gave me this informa- 
tion desired me to conceal name." When the person referred to belongs 

to an assemblage, known to be composed wholly of males, or wholly of 
females, the masculine or feminine pronoun should be used accordingly. But 
when the person belongs to an assemblage of males and females, usage has 
sanctioned the employment of a masculine pronoun ; thus, " Is any among 
you afflicted? let him" (not them, — not him or her) "pray." 

6. When things or animals are personified, they should be represented as 
persons by the pronouns employed ; as, " Next Anger rushed, his ej^es on fire." 
" The wolf who from the nightly fold fierce drags the bleating prey." 

7. Tho pronoun usually follows its antecedent, but sometimes it is placed 
first; as, "Hark ! they whisper; angels say." 

8. Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the beginning 
of their clauses, even though the order of construction would assign them 
some other position; as, " Paternus had but one son, whom he educated him- 
self." 

9. Tho relativo in the objective is sometimes omitted ; as. " Hove is tho pre- 
sent [which] he gave me." The antecedent is not {infrequently omitted ; a.-, 
" [He] Who steals my purse, steals trash." 

The antecedent is not anfrequently a part of a sentence j as, "The boy 
closed the blinds, which darkened the room;" and sometimes a poi 
as, " Supreme authority, Btrictly speaking, i.s on the uni- 

verse." 

The want of a pronoun common gender. Objects personified. Position of 

tho antecedent. Position of Relatives and [nterrogatives. Relative omitted, 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be given, one for 
its agreement, and one for its construction ; in disposing of a relative, we 
should add to these the rule for it as a connective; and in case of what, what- 
ever, or whatsoever, still another to explain its use as an adjective. 

11. The construction of the relative is independent of its antecedent. It 
may be in the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb — nominative absolute, 
possessive case, or in the objective case, governed by a transitive verb, or by a 
preposition ; as, " They loho speak." " We ordered the horses to be harnessed, 
which being done, we commenced our journey." " He hastened to the palace 
of his sovereign, into whose presence his hoary locks and mournful visage 
soon obtained admission." " The person whom I saw." " Whom did you tako 
him to be?" "The man whom they call the janitor." "This is the rule to 
which we called his attention." 

12. The relative which formerly referred as well to persons as things ; as, 
" Our Father which art in heaven." It was sometimes preceded by the definite 
article; as, "In the which ye also walked sometime." — Bible. When used 
interrogatively, which may refer to persons; as, " Which of the two was the 
wiser man ?" 

13. The relative pronoun is 

(o.) Restrictive, when it introduces a clause which restricts the general 
idea denoted by the antecedent, — 

(b.) Explanatory, when it simply resumes the idea expressed by the ante- 
cedent, either in its full extent or as previously defined. 

When used in a restrictive sense, it joins the proposition which it introduces 
to the antecedent, imparting to the clause the qualities of an adjective. When 
thus used, it often has, prefixed to the antecedent, a correlative, such as the, 
this, that, these, those ; the adjective clause becomes a necessary addition to 
the antecedent to complete the limitation intimated by these words. When 
used in an explanatory way, the relative introduces an additional proposition, 
and is equivalent to and he, and she, and it, and they ; as, "He gave me a 
book, which he requested me to read" = He gave me a book, and he re- 
quested me to read it. 

That, what, and as, are always used restrictively. V>lw and which may bo 
either restrictive or explanatory. 

14. When the relative is governed by a preposition, it is generally best to 
place the latter at the beginning of the clause; as, "This is the subject to 
which he alluded," not "which he alluded to." But when the relative that is 
thus governed, the preposition is always placed at the end ; as, " Here is the 
last bridge that we shall come to." It is better not to employ that when the 
governing preposition is understood; yet sometimes it is so used; as, "In 
the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die." 

15. The compound relatives whoever, tvhoso, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever, whatever, and whatsoever, differ from the simple in two respects ; (1.) they 

Construction of the relative. Former use of which. Restrictive and ex- 
planatory use of the relative. Position of the relative when the object of a 
preposition. The relatives whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, 
whatever, whatsoever. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — PRONOUNS. 198 

show that the antecedent is to be taken universally, that is, in the full extent 
of its application ; (2.) the antecedent, especially in the compounds of who and 
what, is generally understood, and hence these words must either have a 
double construction or an antecedent must be supplied ; as, " Whoever seeks, 
shall find" = Any one who seeks shall find; " The soldiers made proclama- 
tion that they would sell the empire to whoever [any one who~[ would purchaso 
it at the highest price." 

16. The words what, whatever, and whatsoever differ from other pronouns in 
another important respect ; they combine in one word both the relative and 
its correlative (13), and thus are equivalent to the, this, that, these, those — 
which ; hence, they perform the office of a limiting adjective, and at the same 
time that of a relative pronoun ; and hence, too, unlike all other relative 
pronouns, they are placed before the antecedent (except as in IS below) when 
expressed (75, 5, and 73, 3) ; the compounds differ from the simple ichat as 
above (15) ; sometimes the simple what is separated from the affix by the ante- 
cedent ; as, " Whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness there may be, what prayer 
and supplication soever be made by any man." — 1 Kings viii. 37, 38. (Sea 
77, 5, 6, 7). 

17. Whoever, whatever, whichever, whichsoever, and whatsoever are often used 
to introduce and connect an adversative subordinate clause (see Anal. 327, 6) ; 
as, " Whatever you may say, he persists in doing it." In this case an adver- 
sative preposition is understood to govern the antecedent ; as, " Whatever," 
that is, [Notwithstanding] whatever useful or engaging endowments we possess, 
virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre" = Notwith- 
standing all those useful or engaging endowments which we possess, <fcc. Hero 
endowments is governed by notwithstanding, and which by possess. It is an 
error to say, as some do, that whatever, here, is simply an adjective, for then 
we should have no relative word to connect the clauses. 

18. Whatever and whatsoever are often used to express universality (15), 
emphatically; as, "I have no confidence whatever in the proposed measure." 
Here, as in comparisons after than or as, the subject of the subordinate clause 
being given, the rest is to be supplied; as, "I have no confidence whatever 
[it may be] in the proposed measure." It is an error here to suppose that 
whatever is a mere adjective, or is like the emphatic personal pronoun himself, 
as in the following, — " The declarations contained in them [the Scriptures] 
rest on the authority of God himself ; and there can be no appeal from them 
to any other authority ichatsocver" [that authority may be]. Care should be 
taken in these difficult constructions not to make a pleonastic use of a per- 
sonal pronoun or other word. The following sentence is faulty ; " Whatsoever 
he saith unto you, do it;" omit it. 

19. When interrogative clauses aro quoted indirectly (170, 1), the inter- 
rogative pronoun is used indefinitely, having only an implied antecedent (2 
above); as, "What shall I do ? I know not what I .shall do." Here the 
whole clause is the object of know, and what of shall do. When such clauses 
are abridged, thus, "I know not what to do;" the whole expression •• What 
to do," is the double object of know, and what is the object of " to d . - . 
"I know not whom to Bend." 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, include a correlative. Compound relatives 
used adversatively. Emphatic universality. Interrogative pronouns. 
17 N 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. The relative that is always restrictive, and should be used, — 

(1.) After the interrogative icho ; as, "Who that marks the fire still spark- 
ling in each eye," &c. 

(2.) After an adjective in the superlative degree; as, "He was the last that 
left." 

(3.) After very, all, same; as, "This is the very book that I want." "Is 
not this all that you ask ?" " He is the same person that I took him to be." 
• (4.) "When the relative refers to an antecedent denoting both persons and 
things ; as, " Here are the persons and papers that were sent for." 

21. Instead of in which, by which, of which, &c, the equivalent relative 
adverbs where, when, whereby, whereof, &c, are used, like the pronoun, to join 
an adjective clause to its antecedent; as, "We discovered the place where the 
goods had been concealed." 

Caution I. Avoid the use of a noun and pronoun as subject or object of 
the same verb, unless great emphasis is required. Say, " The boy did it," — 
not, "the boy, he did it." 

Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having a singular ante- 
cedent. Say, "Let every one attend to his (not their) work." 

Caution III. In the use of a pronoun, avoid ambiguity in its reference to 
an antecedent. 

Caution IV. In arranging nouns or pronouns' of different persons, a pro- 
noun of the second, should be placed before one of the first ; as, " You and 
/," not, "/and you ;" a noun of the third, before a pronoun of the first or 
second; as, " George and 7," " George and you," " George, and you, and 
/," — not, "Zand George," "You and George," or, "/, and you, and 
George." 

Caution V. Avoid the use of who, when speaking of animals and inani- 
mate objects, and of which, when speaking of persons. Say, " The cat which 
mews," not who mews. 

Caution VI. Avoid a change of number, or a change of pronouns, when 
reference is made to the same antecedent in the same sentence. Say, " I know 
you, and I love you too," not, " I know thee and I love you too." 

Caution VII. A pronoun relating to an antecedent consisting of coordi- 
nate terms of different persons or genders, should agree with the first person 
rather than the second or third, and ivith the second rather than the third, 
and with the masculine gender rather than the feminine. Say, You ami 
Charles are learning your lesson, — not, their lesson. "If a man smite 
the eye of his servant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish, he shall let 
him (not her, nor them) go free for his eye's sake." — Bible. 

The relative that, when it should be used. In ichich, by which, Ac. Cautions. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — PRONOUNS. 195 

203. Exercise. 

I. Analyze the sentences, and parse the pronouns, in the following examples: — 
Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too. Other 
sheep I have, which are not of this fold. This is the friend of whom I 
spoke. He who had no mercy upon others, is now reduced to a condi- 
tion which may excite the pity of his most implacable enemy. At sea, 
everything that breaks the monotony of the surrounding expanse, 
attracts attention. That life is long which answers life's great end. 
He is the friend whose arrival is daily expected. The board of health 
have published their report. The committee, who were divided in 
opinion, will discuss the question more fully at their next meeting. It 
is the undaunted bravery, and the wild impetuosity of the Zouaves, that 
render their charges so formidable. All this took place when the vice 
and ignorance which the old tyranny had generated, threatened the 
new freedom with destruction. One or the other must relinquish Lis 
claim. Either Jane or Julia will perform her task. 

Model I. " Hastings advanced to the bar and berht his knee." 
— Macaulay. 

This declarative sentence is a partial compound. "Hastings" is 
the subject, and needs no limitation to point out the individual; "ad- 
vanced to the bar and bent his knee," is the compound predicate. 
Changed to a complete compound, it would be, "Hastings advanced to 
the bar and he bent his knee." The component parts are joined by the 
simple coordinate conjunction and, which unites the parts without em- 
phasis. The first component part is "advanced to the bar;" "advanced" 
is limited by the phrase " to the bar," an adverbial element of place, of 
the second class, used to show to what place he advanced. The second 
component part is "bent his knee;" "bent" is limited by "his knee," 
a complex objective element, first class, of which "knee" is the princi- 
pal element, and is limited by "his," an adjective element used to show 
whose knee was bent. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person," singular number, 
masculine gender, according to Rule III. (Repeat it) ; of the possessive 
case, limiting "knee." Rule VII. 

Model II. 
. " Thus urged the chief; a generous troop appears, 

Who spread their bucklers, and advance their spears." — Pope. 
Let the learner analyze this compound sentence, and parse their as in 
the preceding model, giving as a rule (201, 1, 0.). 

Who is a relative pronoun : as a pronoun it has troop for iis ant-re- 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dent, a collective noun in the singular denoting plurality, and is of the 
third person, plural number, masculine gender by (201, 1, a.) and in 
the nominative case by Rule I. Observe that troop first denotes unity. 
since appears is singular; and then it denotes plurality, as shown by uLo 
and their. 

Model III. " I wish, after all I have said about wit and hutoior, 

I could satisfy myself of their good effects upon the character and 
disposition." — Sidney Smith. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which /is the subject and 
wish the predicate of the principal clause. Let the learner point out 
all the modifications of the predicate, and parse the pronouns. 

" Their''' is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, and agrees with its antecedent "wit and humor," whose 
coordinate terms are taken conjointly by (201, 1, b., or Rule XII.) and 
is in the possessive case by Rule VII. 

2. Construct, analyze, and parse examples of your own, containing the 
different pronouns in their several constructions. 

3. Correct by (201, 1, a. b ) and the several Cautions, the following ex- 
amples, and avoid all similar errors yourself: — 

The committee were unanimous in its action. The army was badly 
cut up, but made good their retreat. Let every chair, every book, and 
every slate be put in their places. Peace and happiness are by no means 
granted to the rich alone ; yet it is supposed by many to depend upon 
wealth. The president or secretary will favor us with their presence. 
Many words — they darken speech. That girl — she is very ignorant. 
The king — he is very angry. The teacher approving the plan, he im- 
mediately adopted it. Whom when they had washed, they laid her in 
an upper chamber. What he said, he is now sorry for it. Let each 
scholar who thinks so raise their hands. A person can content them- 
selves on small means. Let every one answer for themselves. Rebecca 
took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. Can any one be sure 
that they are not deceived ? Thou hast no right to be a judge, who art 
a party concerned. A hawk caught a hen, and eat her in her own nest. 
A purse was lost in the street, which contained a large sum of money. 
There are millions of people in the empire of China whose support is 
derived almost entirely from rice. I and you may go, if I and he can 
agree. I, and you, and Harriet arc going. Father said, that I and 
Henry should stay at home. Horace, and I, and you are invited. There 
was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. He has a soul 
who cannot be influenced by such motives. This is the dog whom my 
father bought. T3ie lady which we saw was highly educated. He lias 

Models. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — VERBS. 197 

some friends which I am acquainted with. The judge which pronounced 
the sentence was an upright man. Those which desire to be happy 
should be careful to do that which is right. Though thou art wise, you 
sometimes misjudge. Do thyself no harm, and no one will harm you. 
This is the man who discovered our distress, and that brought us relief. 
I know you, whom thou art that annoyest me at thy gate. thou who 
"taxi all-wise, and that rulest over all!)/ 1 labored long to make thee 
happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. Let no boy or girl 
drop her pencil. James and you must attend to his studies. 



204. The Verb as Predicate. 

1. Rule IV* The verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number; as, " I am ;" " Thou art sitting ;" "We have come." 

(a.) A verb agreeing with a collective noun in the singular is put in 
the singular, when the noun denotes unity, but in the plural when it 
denotes plurality; as, '* A detachment of two thousand men was sent to 
support the left wing;" " The council were divided in their opinion." 

(6.) A verb agreeing with a subject consisting of coordinate terms, is 
singular or plural according to Puile XII. (See also 220, 1, a. b. c.) 

2. To the general rule that the verb must agree in number and person with 
any subject, according as it denotes unity or plurality of idea, there are pro- 
perly no exceptions. In the following examples, " Ten head of cattle were 
feeding ;" " Five yoke of oxen were ploughing ;" " Fifty sail of vessels were 
seen," — the rule (202, 1, «.) is properly applicable. So in case of the appa- 
rent exception, in which the title of a book is plural, the mind is fixed upon 
the treatise itself as one thing; thus, " Wayland's Elements of Political 
Economy loas published in 1837/' Here, " Elements of Political Economy," 
is the same as " Treatise upon the Elements, <fcc." So, again, a phrase or 
clause (198, 1, a.) used as a subject, is to be regarded as one thing, requiring 
the verb to be in the third person singular. But when a phrase expressive 
of a combination of numbers is regarded as denoting separate units, rather than 
a single number, the verb should be plural; as, "Three times three are nine." 

3. The nominative and verb after many a (an) should be in the singular 
number ; as, " Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." 

4. The subject of verbs in the imperative mode is thou, or ye or you, and is 
usually omitted ; as, " Come [ye]." * Go [thou]." The subject is often to be 
supplied after comparisons with than or at; as, "John has more fruit than 
[what = that which] can bo gathered in a week ;" *' It is as broad as [it is] 
lonfe.' 2 

5. In such inverted interrogative sentences as Who am It Who i* he * Who 
arc you f What am It Who art thou f h it I .' h it h> ' h it thou t care should 

The agreement of tho verb, — with a collective noun — with coordinate terms. 
Apparont exceptions. Many a. Subject omitted. Subjeot and attribute in 

iuvertcd interrogative sentences. 

17* 



198 ENGLISH GSAMMAK. 

be taken to distinguish the attribute from the subject, which alone controls 
the person and number of the verb. 

Caution I. Avoid all such uv grammatical expressions as, " Sags 1;" 
" Thinks I;" " Thinks sags If " I hears him" &c. 

Caution II. Never use a plural verb with a singular subject, though the 
latter be modified bg a noun in the plural. Say, "Each of his brothers is 
(not are) well." 

Caution III. Be careful not to use the wrong verb, as, set for sit, 
lay for lie, come for go ; or the wrong form, as, done for did, wrote for 
written, &c. ; or the wrong tense, as, see for saw, give for gave ; or 
improper contractions, as, ain't for are not, &c. 

205. Exercise. 

1. Analgze and parse the following examples: — 

The Connecticut river was first explored, as far as Hartford, by Adrian 
Block. The sun was setting upon one of the' rich, glassy glades of the 
forest. Those who have ever witnessed the spectacle of the launching 
of a ship of the line, will perhaps forgive me for adding this to the 
examples of the sublime objects of artificial life. Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella were seated, with their son, Prince John, under a superb canopy. 
The nobility were haughty and exacting. The people take the matter 
into their own hands. Society is not always answerable for the conduct 
of its members. 

Model I. "After a brief interval, the sovereigns requested 
of Columbus a recital of his adventures/' — Prescott. 

This simple declarative sentence has "sovereigns" for its grammati- 
cal subject, and "requested" for its grammatical predicate. "Sove- 
reigns," the subject, is limited by "the;" "requested," the predicate, 
is limited, first, by the direct object, "a recital of his adventures," and 
secondly, by the indirect object, "of Columbus." It is further limited 
by the adverbial element, " after a brief interval." 

"Requested'" is a regular transitive verb ; principal parts (pres. request, 
past, requested, past participle, requested) indicative mode, past tense, third 
person, plural number, to agree with " sovereigns," according to Rule IV. 
(Repeat it.) 

Model II. " Why do the heathen rage, and the people imagine 
a vain thing V — Bible. 

This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of two coordi- 
nate clauses joined by "and." Analyze them separately. 

"Do rage" is a regular intransitive. verb, emphatic form, indicative 

Cautions. Models. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — VERBS. 109 

mode, present tense, third person, plural number, to agree -with "hea- 
then," according to Rule IV., a. In the same way parse "do imagine." 

Model III. " Gold ; silver, and copper abound in South Ame- 
rica." 

This is a partial compound sentence. The compound subject is "Gold, 
silver, and copper." The component parts are taken conjointly; the 
simple predicate is "abound," and is limited by "in South America," 
an adverbial element of the second class.. 

"Abound" is a regular intransitive verb, indicative mode, present 
tense, third person, plural number, to agree with its compound subject, 
according to Rule IV., b., or Rule XII. 

2 Construct similar examples of your own. 

3. Correct by (204, 1, a. b.) and the Cautions, the following examples, and 
be careful to avoid all similar errors : — 

Where was you this morning when I called ? He dare you to do it. 
They was unwilling to go. Relatives agrees with their antecedents. 
There's ten of us going. Was you certain of it? We was allowed the 
privilege. Circumstances alters cases. Has those books been sent 
home ? The committee has accepted their appointment. The majority 
was disposed to adopt the measure which they at first opposed. Blessed 
is the people that know the joyful sound. The fleet were seen sailing 
up the channel, where afterwards it anchored. The peasantry goes 
barefoot without endangering their health. The public is requested to 
attend for their own benefit. The church have no power to adopt the 
measure which it advocates. Thinks I to myself, I'll do it. Yes, says 
I, we'll go together. 0, dear me, says I, (as vulgarly contracted, 
"0, dear me, suz.'") The derivation of these words are uncertain. The 
story, with all its additions, were Relieved. The increase of his re- 
sources render the change necessary. The number of applicants 
increase. The general, with all his soldiers, were taken. The sale of 
the goods take place to-morrow. The hope of retrieving his losses 
increase his diligence. I seen him when he done it. Some one has 
broke my pencil. Tell them to set still. She laid down by the fire. 
He soon begun to be weary of the employment. I am going to lay 
down. Mary has wrote a letter. I see him when he went. Ain't it 
true ? We ain't going this evening. He has drank too much, 'flic 
tree lias fell. You have not did as I told you. John has stole the knife. 
They arc going to our house next week. He give me a great many 
books. He knowed his lesson better than Henry. They had sang very 
well. I have lain your book on the shelf. Will you sit the pitcher on 
the fable, and let it set there? The ship lays in the harbor. I dune 
my sums first. 

Models. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

208. The Adjective as Modifier and as Predicate. 

Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun 
or pronoun; as, "The guilty man/' "The man was guilty." 

(a.) An adjective or participle used as the attribute of a proposition, 
belongs to the subject; as, "The tree is tall" "To see the sun is 
pleasant." "Where the funds will be obtained is doubtful." 

(b.) An adjective or participle used to modify a noun, belongs to the 
noun which it modifies ; as, "An upright judge." "Five boxes." " The 
good old man." 

(c.) Adjectives denoting number, agree in number with the nouns they 
limit ; as, " This book ;" " These trees ;" " Ten men." 

(d.) The limiting adjective (article) a or an, belongs to nouns in the 
singular number, except before few, hundred, or thousand ; and the to 
nouns either singular or plural; as, "a man," " an hoar;" " the desk," 
" the pens," "a few men." 

2. The appropriate use of the adjective is to restrict the application of a 
noun used as a common name applicable to each individual of a class. The 
adjective thus used is always a dependent term, having the restricted noun 
as its principal. 

3. A noun may be restricted or limited in its application, — 

(1.) Without affecting any of its properties; as, " Tico men." "These 
books." 

(2.) By designating some property or quality ; as, " Good men." "Indus- 
trious boys." 

(3.) By identifying it; as, "Paul the Apostle." "Peter the Hermit." 
(4.) By representing it as an object possessed ; as, "David's harp." 
The first two limitations are effected by adjectives ; the last two by nouns 
or pronouns performing the office of the adjective. 

4. Any word, or group of words, employed to limit a noun, is an adjective 
element, that is, it is of the nature of an adjective; as, "Industrious men." 
''Men of industry." "Men icho are industrious." 

5. Limiting adjectives, when used in connection with qualifying, are gene- 
rally placed first; as, " The old man." " This valuable hint." " Ten small 
trees." When two limiting adjectives are used, one of which is an article, 
the latter is usually placed first; as, "The ten commandments." But after 
many, such, all, what, and both, the article stands next to the noun ; so, also, 
after adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or hoio ; as, "Many a man." "Such 
a man." "All the boys." "What ahoy." "Both the girls." "Too great, 
as great, so great, how great, a man." 

6. When two or more qualifying adjectives are joined to a noun to express 
different qualities of one object, the limiting adjective should not be repeated; 

.. as, "A red and white flag ;" i. e.. one flag having two colors. But when two 
or more such adjectives belong to a noun used to represent as many different 

An adjective as an attribute, as a modifier. Adjectives denoting number. 
The articles a and the. L T se of the adjective to limit a common noun. Dif- 
ferent ways of limiting. Adjective element. Two adjectives. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — ADJECTIVES. 201 

objects as there are adjectives employed, the limiting adjective must be re- 
peated; as, "We saw a black, a white, a red, and a gray horse;" i. e., four 
horses of different colors. ( So, when two objects have the satue name, but are 
described by adjectives which cannot unite to modify either, the article should 
be repeated when the noun is in the singular number, but used only once 
when it is in the plural; as, " The first, the second, and the third regiment," 
or, " the first, second, and third regiments." " Neither the Old nor the New 
Testament." Not, — " Neither the Old nor New Testament." 

7. Many, followed by a (an), though implying iilurality, is followed by a 
noun in the singular ; as, " Many a man" = Many men. 

8. When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the other plural, 
the plural should generally be placed next to the noun; as, "The first two 
lines," not, "The two first lines." In such expressions as, "Five yoke of 
oxen," "Ten head of cattle," "Fifty sail of vessels," the plural adjectivo 
belongs to a noun in the singular, but used collectively to convey the idea of 
plurality. 

9. When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, and this to the last 
mentioned ; as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; that tends to 
excite pride, this discontent." 

10. By a peculiar use, the — the, primarily articles, belonging to some noun 
understood, as part, are used with comparatives, to denote proportionate 
equality, and are to be regarded as conjunctive adverbs used to join two 
clauses ; as, " The more I see it, the better I like it." 

11. The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to which it belongs 
being understood; as, " The good are respected." On the other hand, the 
noun is often used as an adjective ; as, " Gold beads." 

12. One adjective often limits the complex idea expressed by another adjec- 
tive and a noun ; as, " Two old horses." So, again, in combined numbers, 
and in some few other cases, one adjective limits another; as, " Five hundred 
thousand ;" A bright red apple." 

13. The predicate adjective following copulative verbs, generally denotes 
some property of the subject, either already possessed by it, or acquired 
through the action of the verb; as, "The boy was made sick." " The bread 
was baked brown." "The fruit tastes street." 

11. A participle belonging to the subject is often used somewhat adverbially 
to express an accompanying action. Although it does not show the manner 
of the action, it shows how, or with what it is accompanied ; as, " The Son 
of Man came eating and drinking." See (249, 5). 

15 When two objects, or sets of objects, are compared, the comparative 
degree is generally used; as, V George is taller than William, or is Lhe taller 
of the two." " Our oranges are sweeter than yours." 

lfi. When more than two objects are compared, tho superlative degree is 
used; as, "Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." 

17. When the comparative degree^ is used, tho latter term should always 

Two numerals. This and that. The — the. Adjective used as a mum. 
An adjective joined to an adjective. The predicate adjectivo after copulative 
verbs. Use of comparatives and superlatives. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

exclude the former ; as, u New York is larger than any other city of the United 
States." "He was wiser than his brothers." But when the superlative i3 
used, the latter torn should always include the former; as, ••' Rhode Island is 
the smallest of the United States." 

18. Each, one, either, and neither belong to nouns in the third person singu- 
lar. Hence, when used as nouns, verbs and pronouns should agree with them 
accordingly; as, "Each of his brothers is (not are) well." Either and neither 
have reference to two things only ; each, evert/, and any, to more than two. 
All refers to the individuals of a whole taken collectively ; while each, every, 
and any refer to them when taken distributively. The following sentence is 
wrong, because the individuals should be taken collectively ; " Every term 
in the series is alike," — Say, "All the terms are alike." 

19. An adji-etive after the participle or infinitive of the copula is sometimes 
used abstractly, referring, it may be, logically (but not grammatically) to some 
indefinite object; as, " To be good is to be happy." 

20. An adjective may belong to an adverb, to a phrase, or a clause used as 
a noun; as, " Th is once." Here " once" is equivalent to " one time." "To 
deceive is criminal." " That youth and vigor must pass away is undeniable.'' 

21. The reciprocal each other, should be applied to two objects ; one another 
to more than two ; as, " Righteousness and peace have kissed each other," — 
— not, "one another." "These various tribes have been at war with one 
another." 

Caution I. Never use a before the sound of a vowel, nor an before the 
sound of a consonant. Say, An apple, not a apple. 

Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural adjective to limit a singular noun. 
Say, This sort of people, not those sort. 

Caution III. Avoid the vulgar use of them /or those, and this here 
or that 'ere, for this or that. Say, Those books, not them books — this 
chair, not this J ere chair. 

Caution IV. Avoid the use of the adjective for the adverb. Say, Speak 
promptly, not prompt. 

Caution V. Avoid the use of the superlative degree when two objects are 
compared, or the comparative when more than two are compared. Say, The 
wiser of the two, — not the wisest of the two. 

Caution VI. Avoid the use of double comparatives and superlatives. 
Say, This is the unkindest cut of all, — not the most unkindest cut -of all 

Caution VII. Avoid the use of the article before a title or name used 
merely as a word. Say, He is called captain, not the captain. 

Caution VIII. Avoid the use of the article before the second noun, when 
the same object is compared in two different capacities. Say, He is a better 
teacher ikempoet, not, than a poet. 

Each, every, &c. Adjectives used abstractly. Adjectives belong to advert.-. 
Each other and one another. Cautions. 



SYNTAX— WORDS — ADJECTIVES. 203 

207. Exercise. 

1, Analyze the following examples and parse the adjectives: — 
The yellow sun-flower by the brook, in autumn beauty stood. Life 
is real, life is earnest. The influence of such pursuits is ennobling. 
He was a good man, and a just. He was a burning and a shining light. 
These opportunities, improved as they should be, must produce the 
desired results. The hopes of the whole family were centred on him. 
His resources were inexhaustible. To insult the afflicted is impious. 
Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, whose trembling limbs have borne 
him to your door. That he should refuse such a proposition, was not 
unexpected. Every thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is despi- 
cable to him, though all the world should approve it. 

Model. " The sky was clear, and the immense vault of the 
heavens appeared in awful majesty and grandeur/' — Brydone. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two coordinate 
parts ; the first, " The sky was clear;" the second, "the immense vault, 
&c," to the end. 

The first part is a simple sentence, having "sky" for its subject, and 
"was clear" for its predicate ; the subject is limited by "the," a simple 
adjective element of the first class. 

The second part is a partial compound, and is joined to the first by 
the coordinate conjunction "and." The simple subject is "vault," 
limited by "the," "immense," and " of the heavens;" the first two, 
simple adjective elements of the first class, — the second, a complex 
objective element of the second class. 

The simple predicate is "appeared," and is limited by the phrase 
" in awful majesty and grandeur ;" this is a compound adverbial element 
of the second class, or, what is the same, an element with a compound 
object, limited by the simple adjective element "awful;" "in" is the 
connective, and "majesty and grandeur" the compound object. 

"The" is a limiting adjective (definite article), and belongs to "sky," 
according to Rule V., or Rule V., 1, d. 

"Clear" is a qualifying adjective, and is used as the attribute of the 
proposition, and belongs to the subject " sky," according to Rule V., 1, a. 

"Immense" is a qualifying adjective, and is used to modify ''vault," 
to which it belongs, according to Rule V., 1, b. 

2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the various uses of the 
adjective. 

3. Correct the following examples by the Cautions: — 

He found a acorn in the woods. He was a honorable man. It is an 

Model. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

■wonderful invention. He is an younger man than we thought. She 
showed an uniform adherence to truth. This is an hard saying. 

I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people arc very 
disagreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots ? I have bought eight 
foot of wood. It cost a thousand pound. The lot is fifty foot in width. 
The water is six fathom deep. We walked three mile in a short time. 
He ordered ten ton of coal. 

I found them books on the table. Which of them scholars recites the 
best? Go and tell them boys to come here. Ask them children to bring 
them apples here. 

She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The ship glides 
smooth over the water. The stream flows silent on. It is not such a 
great distance as I thought it was. He behaved much wiser than the 
others. Mary speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding sorry to 
hear such tidings. 

He was the larger of them all. He was the oldest of the two brothers. 
He preferred the latter of the three. Which is the oldest of the two ? 
John is the wisest of the two. 

After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a pharisee. This 
was the most unkindest cut of all. The rose is most fairest of all flow- 
ers. The chief of the Arabian tribes is styled the sheik. The chief 
magistrate is called the emperor. He was an abler financier than a 
negotiator. 

208. The Noun or Pronoun in Apposition. 
1. Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify 
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case ; 
as, " William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon Icing." 

2. The explanatory noun or pronoun must denote the same person or thing 
as that which it identifies. It usually explains by showing the office, rank, 
capacity, occupation, or character of the principal term; as, "Peter the Her- 
mit." " John the Evangelist." 

3. This construction may be regarded as derived from an adjective clause 
by abridging it; as, "Paul, who was the apostle to the Gentiles" = Paul, the 
apostle to the Gentiles. Hence, like the full clause, it may be restrictive, in 
which case it points out the individual; as, "William, the Conqueror ;" or, 
it may be explanatory (202, 13) ; that is, it resumes the idea expressed by 
the principal noun for the purpose of amplification, rhetorical effect, or 
even argument', as, "Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there in the land of 
Moab." Here, " servant" is not used to distinguish this Moses from some 
other, but to show the writer's idea of his exalted character as the servant of 

Nouns in apposition, denote office, &c. Restrictive or explanatory. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — APPOSITION. 205 

the Lord. Mark, also, the following examples, — "The Lord, the most high 
God, the possessor of heaven and earth;" " You have ruined him, your pro- 
tector, your best friend," that is, notwithstanding he is your protector and your 
lest friend. 

4. It is an error to suppose that a noun or pronoun is in apposition with 
another noun or pronoun, because the construction requires them to be put 
in the same case. The predicate noun is not in apposition with the subject 
noun, though it is required to be in the same case; in one case we affirm what 
in the other we assume (163, 7). The second, or attributive object, after the 
active voice of copulative verbs, i3 not in apposition with the first, though in 
the same case. (See 212, 9.) 

5. Three cases of apposition may be distinguished, — 

(a.) The noun in apposition, though subordinate to the principal, is made 
prominent, and receives the emphasis; as, "Peter the Hermit." In this case 
it is always placed last. 

(6.) The noun, when put in apposition with a personal pronoun, though 
phiced last, is so nearly equal in value with the latter, as to render it some- 
times doubtful which should be regarded as principal; as, " Ye men of Athens." 

(c.) When used as a title, or part of a name, the noun in apposition loses 
the emphasis, is placed first, and may be taken with the principal noun, as 
one complex name (44, 5); as, "General Scott." "Washington Irving." Some 
have supposed the leading noun here to be used adjectively. But when a 
noun is used wholly as an adjective, it denotes a different thing from that 
which it limits ; as, " A silver cup." 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is repeated, it is in appo- 
sition with the former ; as, " A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse." 

7. When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally, though not always, 
agrees with the limited, in number, gender, and case; as, "Paul the Apostle." 
" The Franks, a pjeople of Germany." 

8. The noun in apposition is rendered more emphatic when joined by such 
connectives as namely, as, to icit, that is; as, "Two men, namely, George and 
James." "So that he, as God, sitteth in the temple of God." 

9. A noun or pronoun in the plural may be represented, not by one, but by 
two or more nouns, which, together, are equivalent to it ; as, " The victims a 
brother and a sister." The reverse of this rule is equally true; as, " Intem- 
perance, oppression, and fraud, vices of the age." In the case of the expres- 
sions, each other and one another, the first words, each and one, are in apposi- 
tion with a preceding plural noun or pronoun, or with two or more singular 
nouns taken conjointly; as, "The boys struc*k one another" = The boys 
struck — one struck another; "John and David love each otber" = John and 
David love — each lovc3 the other. Each and one are in the nominative case, 
and other is in the objective case. It is better, iu some cases, to consider tho 
combination as an inseparable term; as, " He did not recommend tho wash- 
ing of one another's feet." 

10. The proper name of a place, instead of being put in apposition with 

Nouns in tho same caso not always in apposition. Three cases. Nouns 
repeated. Nouns denoting persons agree in number, gender, and case. Uso 
of namely, as, &c. Each other, &c. A proper and a common name. 
18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the common name, is usually governed by the preposition of; as, " The city 
of Rome." 

11. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and sometimes a 
sentence with a noun ; as, " They devoted their whole time to the promotion 
of our happiness — attentions which we shall not soon forget." " The maxim, 
Enough ia as good as a feast, has silenced many a vain wish." 

12. When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession (*s) is com- 
monly used with only one of them, and that one which immediately precedes 
the limited noun ; as, "John the Baptist's head." " His majesty King Henry's 
crown." " For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife." " At Smith's, 
the bookseller." 

13. Sometimes a noun, preceded by "as," without the sign, and evidently 
without the signification of the possessive, refers logically to a noun or pro- 
noun in the possessive ; as, "What do you think of my brother's success as a 
teacher?" "As an author, his 'Adventurer' is his capital work.' " Rather 
than to consider teacher and author in the possessive case here, it is better to 
suppose teacher to refer in sense to brother's, but to take its case from success ; 
and author to refer logically to his, but grammatically to work. 

209. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the nouns or pronouns in 
apposition : — 

The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The Emperor Nero 
was a cruel tyrant. James, the royal Scottish poet, was imprisoned in 
Windsor Castle. In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, 
invaded France. Frederic William III., King of Prussia, son of Frederic 
William II., and Louisa, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, was born August 
3, 1770. 

Model. " Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Kentucky, was born in 
Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in the month of February, 1735." 
— Sparks. 

Analyze this sentence, and parse the subject, predicate, and all the 
connectives. 

Pioneer is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, nominative oase, and is used to identify "Daniel Boone," 
with which it is put in apposition, by Rule YI. (Repeat it.) 

2. Construct similar examples of your own to illustrate apposition. 

3. Correct, by the rule, the following examples: — 

I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we visited last 
summer. Washington will be remembered by our posterity as him who 
was the father of his country. The echo-song was sung by Jenny Lind, 
she who delighted the whole country. 

A noun in apposition with a sentence. Possessives in apposition. 



SYNTAX — WORDS— POSSESSIVES. 207 . 

210. Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive. 
1. Eule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit the applica- 
tion of another noun, by denoting possession, is put in the posses- 
sive case; as ; "Stephen's courage failed;" " Their fortune was 
ample •" " Whose work is this ?" 

2. The principal idea expressed by this relation is that of possession ; 
yet, this term should not be understood to mean simply property. The 
possessive case is employed to denote, — 

(a.) Property; as, " The farmer's house." 

(b.) Source or origin; as, "Heaven's command;" "The sun's rays." 
(c.) Agency; as, "Solomon's temple," i. e., the temple built by Solomon. 
(d.) Adaptation or fitness ; as, "Men's hats." 
(e.) Kindred; as, "Brother's son." 

(/.) Time, iceigld, and measure; as, "The ten years' -war;" "A pound's 
weight; "A mile's length." 

3. The possessive case is used to limit the noun, when we wish to 
express some agency emanating usually from a person, or some object 
treated as a person.^ It performs the office of the adjective, and is hence 
reckoned an adjective element. 

4. The relation of the possessive is one of dependence. There must, 
therefore, be some noun for it to limit. This noun, however, may be 
understood; as, "He worships at St. Paul's [church]." 

5. The present active participle, the present passive (with being), and 
the perfect participles (but never the past, or simple passive), when 
used as nouns, may be limited by the possessive, and at the same time 
may have the limitation which they have when they are complete predi- 
cates ; as, "I heard of your studying Latin;" "I am in favor of their 
bringing the dispute to a speedy close." 

6. Instead of the possessive form, the preposition of, with the objec- 
tive, is often used ; as, " The court of the king" = The king's court. 

7. The possessive case may be either assumed or predicated ; as, 
"David's book;" " This book is David's." 

8. An adjective sometimes, though seldom, intervenes between the 
possessive and the noun on which it depends; as, "Of man's first diso- 
bedience;" and when, in such case, the noun is understood, the posses- 
sive sign is annexed to the adjective used as a noun; as, "This is the 
wretched's only plea." 

9. All possessive constructions may be divided into simple, complex, 
and compound. The construction of simple posscssives is sufficiently 
explained by Rule VIII. 

Posscssives, what they denote. The possessive, an adjective element. 
Limited noun understood. Possessive* may limit participles. Assumed ur 
predicated. Adjectives intervene. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. A possessive is complex, when a group of words, consisting of a 
principal and a subordinate term, is put into the possessive. Of this 
there are two cases, — 

(a.) The subordinate noun may be in the objective after a preposition ; as, 
" The duke of Wellington's sword." Here, tbe possessive sign is applied to 
an inseparable group. Although " duke" alone is in tbe possessive, it would 
not be improper to regard the whole group as a noun in the possessive, limit- 
ing "sword." When possession in a similar case is predicated (7 above), the 
sign is applied to the simple possessive noun ; as, " There shall nothing die 
of all that is the children's of Israel." — Exodus ix., 4. 

(b.) The subordinate noun may be put in apposition with the principal 
noun. Here are two cases : (1.) When the subordinate noun unites with the 
other, forming a complex name (208, 5, c). In this case, the sign of posses- 
sion is applied to the last only, or that nearest the limited noun ; as, "General 
George Washington's farewell address ;" (2.) When the subordinate noun is 
properly in apposition with a possessive noun ; as, " For thy servant David's 
sake;" "At Smith's, the bookseller." Here, the rule is to give the possessive 
sign to the one immediately preceding the governing noun, whether it be the 
first possessive, as in the second example, or the second, as in the first ex- 
ample. 

11. A possessive is compound, when the terms composing it are coor- 
dinate ; and here, also, are two cases, — 

(a.) The coordinate terms may individually limit a noun denoting one com- 
mon object; as, "Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln's store;" or, 

(6.) They may limit the same noun applied to different objects; as, "Rich- 
ardson's, Worcester's and Webster's Dictionary," that is, three dictionaries. 
In this case, each noun has the sign, because dictionary is understood imme- 
diately after it. But, in the other case, the group has the sign, which is, by 
a general rule, applied to the noun nearest to the governing word. 

12. There are two other constructions which are thought by some to 
come under the case of complex possessives : the one is the case of the 
predicate noun in an abridged proposition, whose subject has been 
changed to the possessive ; the other is that mentioned in (208, 13). For 
these cases, see (200, b., and 208, 13). 

13. Sometimes, a possessive and the limited noun unite and form a 
compound, which may be taken 

(a.) Literally, and should be written without the possessive sign; as, 
tradesman, craftsman, ratsbane, doomsday ; or, 

(b.) Metaiihorically, in which case they should be written with the sign; 
as, Job's-tears, Jeic's-ear, bear's-foot, hound' s-tongue, bear's-breech, lion's-tail, 
toolf's-bane, xoolf's-peach, names of plants. 

When a compound, consisting of a possessive and its governing noun, is 
used as an adjective, the sign should not be omitted; as, "A bird's-eye view;" 
"A camel's-hair shawl." 

Possessive constructions, simple, complex, compound. The possessive and 
limited noun form a compound. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — OBJECT. 209 

Caution I. In writing nouns in the possessive, never omit the possessive 
termination. Write man's, not mans. 

Caution II. In using pronouns in the possessive, never insert the apos- 
trophe in writing, nor add the letter n in speaking. Write theirs, not their's. 
Say, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, not hisn, hern, ourn, yourn, theirn. 

Caution III. Never make the limited noun plural because the possessive 
is plural. Say "Their decision," not, "Their decisions," one only being 
meant. 

211. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the possessives : — 
Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The joy 

of his youth was great. Rotha's bay received the ship. Her ways are 
ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. A mother's tender- 
ness, and a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's advantage. A 
chieftain's daughter seemed the maid. Yet my last thought is England's. 
She stooped her by the runnel's side. Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. 
Our harps we left by Babel's streams. 

Model "What, I say, was Caesar's object?" — Knoiolcs. 

This is a complex sentence, consisting of a principal clause, "I say," 
and a subordinate interrogative clause, "What was Caesar's object?" 
It is quoted directly (170, 1), and hence the interrogation point is used 
at the close (170, 6). 

"I," is the subject of the principal clause, and "say," the grammati- 
cal predicate ; it is limited by the quoted clause, which is subordinate 
in construction, and is an objective element of the third class. It has 
no connective (160, 5); its simple subject is "object," and is limited 
by the adjective element " Cassar's ;" the predicate is "was what," of 
which "was" is the copula, and "what" the attribute. 

" Ccesar's" is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, possessive case, and is used to limit "object," by 
denoting possession. Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 

2. Construct similar examples of your own. 

3. Correct any errors of your own, either in speaking or writing the pos- 
sessive. 

4. Correct the following examples by the Cautions: — 

On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the grand sultans 
palace. The nations hopes were blasted. Next Mars, Piazsis orb i3 
seen. It is against the laws of Flutos empire His brothers offence is 

Cautions. Model. 
18* ' 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

not his. Midst glorys glance, and victorys thunder-shout. The mans 
story was false. If, of Drydens fire the blaze is brighter, of Popes the 
heat is more regular and constant. 

This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate is hisn. This 
map is theirn. This knife is mine, and not yourn. That handkerchief 
is hern. These sheep are ourn. Will you drive yourn out of the pas- 
ture? Our's is a pleasant task. 

I will do it for your sakes. We intend, for our parts, to follow his 
advice. Their healths have improved. We will submit to our lots. It 
was not worth their whiles to remain so long in port. 



212. The Object. 

1. Eule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a tran- 
sitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case; as, 
" He found the object which he desired." 

(a.) Copulative verbs (9 below), in the active voice, take a direct object 
and predicate of it an attributive object, both of which form a double 
object; as, "They called him John." In the passive voice, the direct 
object becomes the subject, and the attributive becomes the attribute ; 
as, "He was called John.'" 

(b.) Certain verbs, as give, ask, teach, and others (12 below), in lite 
active voice, take two objects, one direct, and the other indirect, as, 
"He gave me a booh." In the passive, the direct object should become 
the subject, and the indirect should remain in the predicate; as, "A 
book was given to me." 

2. When a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning of a transitive 
verb, without the aid of a preposition expressed or understood, it is called the 
direct object ; but when it is added to a verb, either transitive or intransitive. 
to show that to or for which anything is, or is done, or that from which any- 
thing proceeds, it is called the indirect object; as, "Ellen gave au apple to 
her brother." 

3. When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition should be 
omitted; when it follows, it should be expressed; as, "I lent him a book" = 
I lent a book to him. 

4. The indirect object is sometimes used alone with intransitive verb?, 
sometimes with an adjective, and in a few instances with a noun; as, "Ho 
spoke of his trials." " To me this rule is obvious." " To the hero that was 
a proud day." 

5. The object of a transitive verb may be an infinitive, or a substantive 
clause ; as, " I love to icrite." " I have heard that he was sick." 

The object — after copulative verbs — after give, ask, &c. Direct and indi- 
rect object. Tho infinitive as object. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — OBJECT. 211 

6. Some intransitive verb3 are followed by an object of kindred significa- 
tion ; as, " He ran a race." " She dreamed a dream." 

7. The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive; as, 
" Romulus founded Rome" = Rome was founded by Romulus. 

8. To avoid ambiguity, the object should be placed after the verb, especially 
when the subject and object are both nouns ; as, " Alexander conquered Da- 
rius," not "Alexander Darius conquered/' but when the subject or object is 
a pronoun, the form usually determines the relation ; as, " Him followed his 
next mate." 

9. The following copulative verbs, maize, appoint, elect, create, constitute, 
render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and some others, 
not only take after them a direct object, but predicate of it another object, 
which may, therefore, be called its attribute. The attributive object may bo 
either a noun, an adjective, or a verb. "They made him an officer." "They 
made him sick." " They made him labor." Though it is evident that the 
attributive object, when a noun, denotes the same person or thing as the first, 
it is by no means in apposition with it. In the case of apposition, the prin- 
cipal noun completes the meaning of the verb, and the second limits the first ; 
as, " They called Miles, the carpenter." But in the case of two objects (the 
object and its attribute), both are necessary to complete the meaning of the 
verb ; as, " They called Miles a carpenter " In one case, the second noun has 
no grammatical relation to the verb ; in the other, it is directly related, both 
to the verb and to the first noun. In the first example, " carpenter" should 
be parsed as a noun in the objective, put in apposition with the first, by Rule 
VI. In the second example, " carpenter" should be parsed as a noun in the 
objective, forming, in connection with "Miles," the object of "called," being 
also an attribute to the first object. In a similar way, parse "sick," and 
" labor," in the above examples ; or, one may be called the first, or principal, 
and the other the attributive object of the verb. 

10. This construction, in many instances, may bo traced to an abridged 
proposition, in which the infinitive has been dropped ; as, " They considered 
him a poet," that is, to be a poet. In fact, the infinitive of the copula is often 
expressed, the first object representing, in the objective, what was the subject 
nominative ; the second, in like manner, what was the predicate nominative 
before the proposition Avas abridged ; as, " I knew that he was a scholar." 
" I knew him to be a scholar." In such cases, the infinitive and second noun 
form the attributive object of the verb, the second noun being in the objectivo 
after "to be." Some verbs, as say, announce, hope, and others, take only the 
full form of the proposition; others, as believe, knoic, think, and many others, 
admit either the full or abridged form; whilo others, as compel, constrain, 
and others, take only the abridged form ; as, " I say that he did it," — never, 
him to </<> it ; " I believe that he is honest" = him to be honest; " They com- 
pelled tyim to go," — never, that he should go. 

11. An infinitive may be the second or attributive object; the first object 
being Its subject, and the two together forming a kind of abridged proposition ; 

Object of kindred signification. Position of the object. Object after copu- 
lative verbs. Principal and attributive object. Double object derived from 
an abridged proposition. 



-H 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, U They ordered the soldier* to march" " They ordered that the soldiers 
should march." (182, 8.) 

12. The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing, get, lend, draxo, send, make, 
pass, icrite, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present, throiv, carry, ask, 
show, order, promise, refuse, deny, provide, and some others, take after them, 
besides a direct object, an indirect object, showing to or from what the action 
tends ; as, " Give me a book." 

13. "When any of the above verbs assume the passive form, the direct object 
generally (though not always) becomes the subject; as, "A book was given 
me." The indirect object sometimes, however, becomes the subject ; as, " Ho 
was asked his opinion." "1 was taught grammar." Opinion and grammar 
are in the objective case after a passive verb. 

14. Instead of a single word, or an infinitive, a substantive clause may 
become one of the objects ) as, " He informed me that the boat had sailed." 



213. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the sentences, and parse the objective nouns and pronouns in 
the following examples: — 

Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power that avarice 
makes concerning wealth. If you have performed an act of great and 
disinterested virtue, conceal it. Imperial Rome governed the bodies of 
men, but did not extend her empire farther. In former times, patriots 
prided themselves on their own poverty, and the riches of the state. 
He endeavored to inculcate right principles. He sought to follow the 
example of the good. They say that they have bought it. The truly 
great consider, first, how they may gain the approbation of God. lie 
inquired, "Who comes there?" 

Model I. " Thou hast delivered me from the strivings of the 
people; and thou hast made me the head of the heathen." — 
Psalms xviii. 43. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate parts, con- 
nected by "and." The first is a simple sentence, having "thou" for its 
subject, and "hast delivered" for its simple, and "hast delivered me 
from the strivings of the people," for its complex predicate. (Point 
out all the modifications of the simple predicate.) 

The second component part is also a simple sentence, having "thou" 
for its subject, "hast made" for its simple, and "hast made me the head 
of the heathen," for its complex predicate. The simple predicate "hast 
made" is modified by " me the head of the heathen," an objective ele- 
ment, consisting of "me," the direct, and " the head of the heathen," 

Object after buy, sell, &c. Direct object of the active voice becomes tho 
subject of the passive. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — ADVERBS. 213 

the attributive object, both together forming a double object, used to 
complete the meaning of "hast made." 

" Me" is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and objective case, and in the first clause is the object 
of "hast delivered," according to Rule VIII. ; and in the second, the 
leading or direct object of "hast made." 

"Head" is a common noun, third person, &o., and is the attributive 
object of "hast made," "me head," combined, being the double object, 
according to Rule VIII. , a. 

In the same manner, parse "him," and "to write," in the sentence, 
"I commanded him to write." 

Model II. " He gave me a promise." 

"He" is the subject, and "gave" the simple, and "gave me a pro- 
mise," the complex predicate; "gave" is limited by "me" and "pro- 
mise," — the latter a direct, and the former an indirect object of " gave." 
Let the learner parse each, and give Rule VIII., b., and Rule VIII. 

2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the object after transitive 
verbs. 

8. Correct the following examples by the rule: — 

"Who did you see yesterday ? "Who did he marry ? They that help 
us we should reward. He who committed the offence thou shouldst 
punish, not I, who am innocent. Who should I find but my cousin? 
"Will you let him and I sit together ? I did not know who to send. 



214. Adverbs as Modifiers. 
1. Rule. IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs; as, " Lightning moves swiftly." " He 
advanced walking slowly ;" "The niglit was very dark;" "The 
sound was heard very distinctly." 

2. Some adverbs, instead of modifying any particular word, are either inde- 
pendent, or are used to modify an entire proposition; as, yes, no, nay, amen, 
likewise, truly, &e. "Will you go ? Yes." — " Truly, God is good to Israel." 

3. Any word or group of words performing tbe office of an adverb, is called 
an adverbial element or expression. If it be a group of words, it should first 
be disposed of as an adverb, and then resolved into its component parts. 

1. An adverb or adverbial expression should be placed so near the word 

which it limits, as to make its relation obvious ; yet no element of the sentence 

can be so easily transposed without causing ambiguity, as the adverbial. It 

Laced at the beginning, in the middle, or at the cud of the sentence ; 

Adverbs modify a proposition. An adverbial clement. Position of the 
adverb. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, " He carefully examined the document" = Carefully did he examine the 
document. He examined the document carefully. 

5. Adverbs are used sometimes to limit the meaning of a preposition, some- 
times a phrase; as, "He held his hand exactly over the place" "We were 
absent almost a year." 

6. Adverbs are themselves sometimes modified by phrases or clauses ; as, 
" He left yWr years afterwards" "He came some time ago." " He two. faster 
than his brother." 

7. What, equivalent to partly, is sometimes used as an adverb (75, 7). 
Once = one time, is often used as a noun ; as, " Excuse me for this once." 
" So, also, when, now, and then, are used as nouns ', as, " Until note ;" " Since 
then;" "Since when." 

8. Conjunctive adverbs are complex words usually modifying two words, 
and, at the same time, joining an adverbial clause to the word on which it 
depends ; as, " We shall be present ichen the boat arrives" (135, 2). 

Caution I. Two negatives should never be employed to express a negation ; 
as, "I have no book," not, "I haven't no book." 

Caution II. Avoid the use of an adverb when the quality of an object, and 
not the manner of an action, is to be expressed; as, "The apple tastes 
sweet," not, "sweetly tastes." 

Caution III. Avoid the use of so to express negation, with a verb or par- 
ticiple ; as, " I shall not change my course of action, whether you do or 
not," not, "whether you do or no." 

Caution IV. Never use how before that, or instead of it ; as, " He said 
that he should come," not, "how he should come," nor, "how that he 
should come." 

215. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the sentences, and parse the adverbs in the following examples : — 
You both are truly welcome. Speak softly, for a breath might wake 
her. Yet we may strongly trust his skill. How heavily her fate must 
weigh her down ! Freely to give reproof, and thankfully to receive it, 
is an indispensable condition of true friendship. How happy they who 
wake no more ! How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! How 
easily are men diverted from a good cause ! 

Model I. "Burke was deeply hurt." — Macaulay. 

This simple sentence has "Burke" for its subject, "was hurt" for its 
grammatical, and "was deeply hurt" for its logical predicate; "was 
hurt" is limited by "deeply," a simple adverbial element of the first 
class, used to show how he was hurt. 

Adverbs limit prepositions or phrases. What, an adverb. Conjunctive 
adverbs. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — ADVERBS. 215 

"Deeply" is an adverb, comp. deeply, more deeply, most deeply, and ia 
used to limit "was hurt," by Rule IX. (Repeat it.) 

2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the uses of the adverb. 

3. Correct, by the Cautions, the following examples: — 

I will not take that course by no means. I did not like neither his 
principles nor his practice. I cannot write no more. Nothing never 
can justify such conduct. He will never be no better. Neither he nor 
no one else believes the story. I never go nowheres. I am resolved not 
to trust him, neither now, nor any other time. No one knows neither 
the causes nor the effects of such influences. 

His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very smoothly. Give 
him a soon and decisive answer. Such incidents are of seldom occur- 
rence. The then emperor issued a decree. Did he ax-rive safely ? She 
seemed beautifully. 

Know now whether this be thy son's coat, or no? Tell me whether I 
shall do it, or no. I will ascertain if it is true, or no. 

He said how he believed it. She told me how that she would come 
if she could. He remarked how time was valuable. 

4. Exchange the following adverbs for equivalent phrases, containing a 
preposition and its object : — 

The soldiers fought bravely. The cars are moving rapidly. There 
stands the house. The bee builds its cells skilfully. The winds blow 
fiercely. Where are you teaching ? Why do you delay ? Rtead carefully. 
Listen attentively. 

216. Case Independent and Interjection. 

1. Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the interjec- 
tion, have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sen- 
tence. 

j^ {a.) A noun or pronoun may be independent by direct address; as, 
ii riato, thou reasonest well." 

(b.) A noun or pronoun may be independent by mere exclamation; as, 
"0 wretched man that I am I" 

(c.) A noun or pronoun may be independent by pleonasm, or when the 
attention is drawn to an object before anything is said of it : as, " Har- 
ry's flesh, it fell away." "Gad, a troop shall overcome him." 

(d.) A noun or pronoun may be independent or absolute, when, in 
connection with a, participle, it is equivalent to a proposition, oftthich it 

Nominative case independent. InterjeotionB. Direct address, Exclama- 
tion. Pleonasm. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

■was the subject before the former was abridged ; as, " lie having arrived, 
we returned.'' 

(e.) A noun or pronoun may be independent, when, in an abridged 
proposition, it follows the infinitive or participle of the copula, and is 
uncontrolled by a preceding noun; as, 'I was not aware of his being a 
scholar" " To be a scholar requires industry and perseverance." 

2. In the last two cases, though the noun is absolute, the group of words to 
which it belongs, including the participle or infinitive, has some connection 
with the rest of the sentence. 

3. In the case of the nominative absolute, that is, the nominative preceding 
a participle, sometimes the noun or pronoun is understood, and sometimes the 
participle ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as cold;" that is, we, 
or one, speaking properly " This done, and all is safe;" that is, being done. 
" This matter at an end, we will proceed ;" being at an end. 

4. Both of the last two cases result from abridging a dependent clause. 
The abridged construction may usually be restored to a complete proposition. 

5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun appears to be put absolute with an infini- 
tive ; as, "And / to be a corporal in the field, and wear his colors like a tum- 
bler's hoop." "What? II / love! I sue ! I seek a wife !" 



217. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, a?id parse the interjections and cases 
independent : — 

Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon day most 
calm, most bright ! With thee, sweet hope, resides the heavenly light. 
A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! The pilgrim fathers ! 
where are they ? He having given us the direction, we departed. I 
was not aware of his being the preacher, the times ! the manners ! 
Ah, father ! these are wondrous words. The savage rocks have drunk 
thy blood, my brother ! 

Model I. " Alack ! alack ! Edmund, I like not this unnatural 
dealing." 

This is a simple sentence, preceded by the interjections "Alack! 
Alack!" and the compilative (157, 3), or the name of the person ad- 
dressed. These have no part in the grammatical construction of the 
sentence. 

"I" is the subject, and "like" the simple, and "like not this unna- 
tural dealing," the complex predicate. (Point out the limitations of the 
simple predicate.) 

"Alack" is an interjection, expressive of grief, and has no depend- 
ence upon any part of the sentence, by Pule X., a. (Repeat it.) 

Subject nominative absolute. Predicate nominative absolute. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — CONJUNCTIONS. 217 

"Edmund" is a propel noun, second person, singular number, and 
nominative case independent by direct address. Rule X. ; see a. 

Model II. " But, vain boast ! 

Who can control his fate V — Shakspeare. 
"Boast" is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and nominative case independent by exclamation. Rule X. ; 
see b. 

Model III. " Gad, — a troop shall overcome him." — Bible. 
■ " Gad''' is a proper noun, third, sing. masc. nom. independent by 
pleonasm. Rule X. ; see c. 

Model IV. " The war having ended, the army vras disbanded." 
For the Analysis of this case, see 199, 1, Model III. 
" War" is a common noun, third, sing. neut. nominative absolute with 
the participle "having ended." Rule X. ; see d. 

Model V. "He was displeased on account of my being a 
friend to his enemy." 

For Analysis, see 201, 1. Model III. 

"■Friend" is a common noun, &c, and is in the nominative absolute 
by Rule X. ; see e. 

2. Construct examples to illustrate the use of the interjections and cases 
independent. 

218. Co-ordinate Conjunctions. 
1. Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect 
similar elements; as, " Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were Jewish 
patriarchs/' 

2. These conjunctions are used only when the parts connected are of the- 
same rank (159), and not even then, unless there is some similarity or con- 
trast in the thoughts or ideas expressed by the united parts. Thus, when 
two thoughts are uttered; as, " The king sat upon his throne ;" " The south 
wind is blowing gently," they may hold the same rank as independent sen- 
tences ; but being wholly unlike in meaning, they cannot blend into ono 
sentence. So, again, the adjective element "old" and ''brown," in the ex- 
pression, "That old brown house," are of the same rank, but do not express 
kindred ideas. Compare with these, " We have much to do, and our time is 
short;" "A tvise and patriotic sovereign." 

3. "When the connection between two similar coordinate thoughts or ideas 
is to be made close, or one is to be made inure emphatic than the other, two 

Coordinate conjunctions. Terms of the same rank and similar. Correg* 
ponding conjunctions. 
19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

conjunctions are used, — the one corresponding with the other, and both con- 
spiring to form the connection; as, " The prince is both virtuous and wise ;"' 
" He not only reads Shakspeare's plays, but he appreciates them." 

4. Sometimes a thought or an idea sustains a double relation to another, tie 
one simply coordinate, the other causal, illative, concessive, augmentative, 6rdi- 
native, partitive, &c. The former is represented by the simple coordinate 
conjunction (sometimes understood), placed between the coordinate part.-, and 
the latter by a connective (sometimes adverbial in its nature) associated with 
it; as, "The south wind blows [and], there/ore, there must be rain." "She 
sings ; [and] besides she plays beautifully." 

5. When the coordinate thought or idea is purely causal, the causal or illa- 
tive conjunction expresses the whole connection; as, "The tree is falling, 
therefore run" = Run, for the tree is falling. 

6. "When correlatives are employed, the principal conjunction is usually 
placed at the beginning of the second or added clause, and its correlative is 
placed in the first, to give the reader or hearer an intimation of what is tc 
follow; as, "Whether the truth of the matter will ever be discovered or not, 
is very doubtful." Sometimes, inelegantly however, either, or neither, is placed 
at the end of the sentence; as, "I can not go, nor you neither" = Neither J 
nor you can go. 

Caution I. In a series of coordinate terms, unless great emphasis is re- 
quired, insert the conjunction between the last two Qnly. Say. "Peter, James, 
and John," — not, "Peter, and James, and John. 

Caution II. In using correlatives, be careful to place both conjunctions 
so as mark correctly the prominent or contrasted terms. Say, "He was not 
only poor, but idle," — instead of, " Not only was he poor, but idle." 

Caution III. Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate coordinate construc- 
tions. Say, " I saw him enter the gate, and ring the bell." Not, " I saw 
him entering the gate, and ring the bell." 

219. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the conjunctions : — 
Clouds and darkness are round about him, righteousness and judg- 
ment are the habitation of his throne. They were united both by tics 
of friendship and of kindred. I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the 
barbarians. The country was wasted, — partly by war, partly by famine, 
and partly by pestilence. The relations of the teacher will be treated 
as threefold; first, to his pupils, secondly, to his school officers, and 
thirdly, to the parents. A hero on the day of battle has sacrificed a 
meal, and shall we therefore pity him ? The situation is not suited to 
his tastes; the compensation, moreover, is meagre. They have, indeed, 
honored them with their praise, but they have disgraced them with their 



Two coordinate conjunctions. Position of conjunction and correlative, 



i 



SYNTAX — WORDS— CONJUNCTIONS. 2 19 

pity. Not only can he gain no lofty improvement without labor, but 
without it he can gain no tolerable happiness. 

Model I. " Talent has many a compliment from the bench, 
but tact touches fees from attorneys and clients/' — London Allan. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate principal 
clauses. They are related by contrast (218, 2), and, hence, readily 
unite to form one sentence. Let the learner analyze each separately. 

" But" is an adversative coordinate conjunction, and used to join the 
second clause to the first, by Rule XI. 

It must be coordinate to join clauses of equal ranlc. It is adversative, 
since the clauses are not in harmony with each other, but the second 
restricts the thought expressed by the first, by shutting off, or opposing 
any such inference as that the mere preeminence of talent with the 
bench implies universal preeminence. It also shows that the writer in- 
tended, by the contrast, to bring the second thought into greater promi- 
nence than the first, 

"And," in the second clause, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, 
and is used to unite the two remote elements (159, 2), "from attorneys 
and [from] clients," by Rule XI. 

These two phrases are similar in form, similar in the ideas expressed, 
equal in rank, equal in emphasis, and in perfect harmony with each 
other. Hence, they require not only a coordinate, but a copulative con- 
junction. 

Model II. " The wolves have been exterminated, and, there- 
fore, the flocks and herds are unmolested." 

This is a compound sentence, containing two coordinate clauses, — 
the second being a partial compound. Let the learner analyze both 
clauses. 

"And," in the first case, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, join- 
ing the two clauses, as grammatically equal, and in harmony with each 
other, by Rule XI. 

"Therefore" is a causal coordinate conjunction, and is used to show 
that the second clause is a logical deduction from the first. It conspires 
with "and" to join the two clauses, — the one grammatically, the other 
logically, but both coordinately, by Rule XI. 

"And," in the second clause, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, 
and is used to join the two subjects, "flocks" and "herds," by Rule 
XI. As these are prominent elements of the clause, it is a partial com- 
pound. 

2. Construct or select other sentences containing coordinate conjunctions, 
and explain their use. 

Models. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Correct the following examples by the Cautions: — 

They confess the power, and wisdom, and love, and goodness of their 
Creator. John, and James, and Henry, and Charles will return this 
evening. His conduct was unkind, and unjust, and unmerciful. 

He neither came nor was,sent for. We pervert the noble faculty of 
speech, when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbors. \\'o 
hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has returned. I always 
have, and I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed 
with rapidity and promptly. It is a region distinguished by many 
charming varieties of rural scenery, and nafoiok may be termed the Arca- 
dia of Scotland. He retired voluntarily, and a conqueror. 

Are we not lazy in our duties or make a Christ of them ? In many 
pursuits we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully. 

It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the 
affluence of external fortune. Either sentences are simple or compound. 
His fortune has not only suffered by his folly, but his health. This is 
not merely a question of interest, but of right also. 



220. Coordinate Constructions. 

1. Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or more 
nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 

(a.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in the plural 
number. 

(b.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must be of the same 
number as that which stands next to it. 

(c.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the number 
of that one. 

Examples. — "Charles and his sister icerc absent, but they were sent for." 
" Charles or his sister teas absent." "Charles or his sisters icere absent.'' 
" Charles, and not his sister, icas absent." 

2. In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be taken conjointly, 
and yet the verb and pronoun should be singular, — ■ 

(a.) When the coordinate nouns denote the same person in different capaci- 
ties; as, " This great statesman and orator died lamented by all his friends." 

(b ) When the coordinate nouns are considered separately, by means of such 
limiting words as each, every, or no ; as, "Each day and each hour brings its 
own duties and trials." "Every book and every paper u-as taken from its 
place." "Jo book and no paper should be left out of its place." 

(c.) When the coordinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis by means 
of not, only, too, as rcell as, or when there is an emphatic enumeration of indi- 
viduals ; as, "George, and n»t James, is at his task." "Truth, and truth 

Coordinate constructions — taken conjointly — separately. Exceptions. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — CONJUNCTIONS. 221 

only, is worth seeking for its own sake." " The man, and his servant too, was 
rewarded." " The father, as well as his son, was in fault." " Thine is the 
kingdom, and the power, and the glory." 

(d.) When the coordinate nouns are regarded by the mind as representing 
- one thing,- as, " Bread and milk is excellent food for children." " The korso 
and chaise is in its place." 

3. Thus far reference has been had only to the number of the verb and pro- 
noun. It often happens that the coordinate words are of different persona. 
When the coordinate parts are of different persons, the verb or pronoun agrees 
with the first rather than the second, and with the second rather than the 
third; as, "Thou and thy sons with thee (that is, ye) shall bear the iniquity 
of your priesthood." "John, thou, and / (that is we) are attached to our 
country." 

4. When the coordinate parts are each singular, and of different genders, 
several cases may arise, — 

(<(.) The verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may relate 
to bat one; as, "James and his sister were destroying her bonnet." "James 
and his sister were destroying his cap." 

(b.) The pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the verb relates 
to them taken separately; as, "James or his sister has destroyed their diction, 
ary," the dictionary being theirs by # joint ownership. 

(c.) When the pronoun has a common reference to both coordinate nouns 
taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pronoun, since 
the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the same form for all 
genders. 

(d.) When the pronoun refers to two or more coordinate nouns taken sepa- 
rately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, and there 
is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression properly; as, "John 
or Ellen has lost hie or her pencil." To use his alone, or her alone, would 
reveal the ownership, which is supposed to be unknown. Hence it does not 
avail to say that the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the feminine 
to the neuter; for either would become explicit, as in case (4, a.). To avoid this 
difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct it as to escape such 
a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule (202, 5), frequent instances 
occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the j)lural, and thus tho 
gender is concealed; as, "Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that 
woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till they shall die." 

5. Wheu each of the coordinate parts is denoted by the same word, and 
that a singular noun referring to different objects, and each, except the last, 
is understood, — being represented by some modifying word, the agreemei 

the verb or pronoun follows the general rule ; as, " A Webster's, a Worcester's, 
and a Richardson's dictionary were consulted j" that is. three dictionaries. 
. " A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man were assembled iu one 
room." 

6. Coordinate terms arc taken separately, when one is affirmative, and tho 

Different persons. Coordinate constructions^ different persona— genders. 
Pronouns relating to singular coordinate nouns taken conjointly, separately. 
When the coordinate parts are the same word. 
19* 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

other negative, or when one is opposed Lo, or contrasted with, the others;- in 
such cases, if both, or all the terms are plural, the pronoun or verb must, of 
course, be plural. When a verb or pronoun relates to two coordinate terms, 
connected by as well as, save, but, but not, or and not, it should agree with the 
former, and be understood to the latter, whatever be its number; as, "The 
minutest insect, as well as the largest quadruped, derives its life from the same 
omnipotent source ;" "None, but he, can heal the malady of the soul ;" ** There 
was no stranger with us in the house, save we two in the house." 

7. Two terms may be coordinate logically, but not grammatically; as, 
"Godliness with contentment is great gain" == Godliness and contentment, <tc. 
In such cases, the verb or pronoun should agree with the term to which it 
refers grammatically. 

221. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, and point out and parse the verbs and 
pronouns which illustrate the rule : — 

"Where was it when winds and clouds were his only visitors, and when 
the sun and blue heavens by day, and the moon and stars by night, alone 
looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it now? One clay 
the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market-place. 
Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse was ever withheld from 
the cause in which he had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors 
were saved. Whether one person or more were concerned in the busi- 
ness, does not appear. Every insect, and every bird, was hushed to 
silence. 

Note.— For Models, see (203, 1), and (205, 1). 

2. Construct or select other examples to illustrate this rule. 

222. Prepositions. 
1. Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of its 
object to the word on which the ohject depends ; as, " George went 
into the garden;" "A life of virtue is a life of happiness." 

2. The noun or pronoun following the preposition is always dependent on 
some term, usually a preceding one, and the preposition is used to show that 
dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of the prepo- 
sition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb, there 
are two terms, the verb itself and the objective, and the relation between them 
is closer than between those in which the preposition is used ; the objective is 
not called the object of that relation, but rather of the antecedent term, the 
verb. Yet custom makes the noun the object of the preposition. 

3. Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes the subsequent : 
as, "In a word, he is ruined" = To express all in a icord, <tc. "He looked 

Two terms logically but not grammatically cob'rdinate. Prepositions show 
a dependence. Antecedent or subsequent term omitted. 



SYNTAX — WORDS— PREPOSITIONS. Z_o 

around" supply [him]. When the object is understood, the preposition is 
usually parsed as an adverb. For, used before an infinitive and its objective 
subject, when the group is taken as the subject of a proposition, has no ante- 
cedent term; as, "For him to lie is base." The to of the infinitive, when both 
together constitute the subject, represents no relation to an antecedent term; 
as, "To lie is base." 

A:. Between and betwixt refer to two objects; among and amongst to more 
""than two; as, u He walked between the trees" (two trees). "He walked 
among the trees" (many trees). 

5. Sometimes the preposition is involved in the antecedent term, or, at least, 
is suggested by it; as, near [to], like [to]. 

6. When the preposition is placed at the beginning of a sentence, or when, 
with its object, it precedes the antecedent term of the relation which it shows, 
the relation may be easily discovered by rearranging the sentence. Thus, 
" Of all the topics involved in this theme, it will be impossible for me to 
speak" = It will be impossible for me to speak of all the topics, &g. 

Caution. In expressing the relations between words, be careful to employ 
appropriate prepositions. Say, "That is different from what I expected," 
not, "Different to what I expected." 

223. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the prepositions : — 
I call to you with all my voice. From end to end, from cliff to lake, 
'twas free. Her tears were now flowing without control. She is like 
some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the grove — graceful in its 
form, bright in its foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart. 

Model. "Of all his errors, the most serious was, perhaps, the 
choice of a champion" = " The most serious [error] of all his 
errors, was, perhaps, the choice of a champion." 

This is a simple sentence. " Error" understood is the subject, and is 
limited by "the," " most serious," and "of all his errors." (Describe 
and classify each.) "Was choice" is the predicate, of which " was" is 
the copula, and "choice" is the attribute; "was" is limited by the 
modal adverb "perhaps," used to give a degree of uncertainty to the 
assertion; "choice" is limited by "the" and "of a champion." (De- 
scribe and classify each.) 

" <>f" is a preposition, and, in the first instance, shows the relation 
of "errors" to "error" understood; in the second instance, it shows 
the relation of "champion" to "choice." Rule XIII. (Repeat it. | 

truct examples of your own to illustrate the use of the preposition* 
when the antecedent term is a NOUN, an ap.ik.ctivk. a VXBB, em .wvvr.u. 

For and to. Between, betwixt, among, amongst. Position of the prcpositiou. 

Model. 






224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Correct, by the Caution, the following examples: — 

I am engaged with my work. Mesopotamia lies among two river?. 
I left my book to home. Come in my house. They insist on it, that 
you are wrong. My friend has a strong prejudice to the candidate. 
That mother is too indulgent with her child. With what are you so 
intent? We should profit from the experience of others. That boy is 
not careful with his books. With what does he excel ? 

224. The Object of the Preposition. 

1. Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the oLjcct of a pre- 
position must be in the objective case; as, "The ruins of the 
Parthenon stand upon the Acropolis in the city of Athens." 

(a.) Before nouns in the objective, denoting time, measure, distance, 
quantity, value, or direction, and before such as follow near, nigh, like, and 
tvorth, the preposition is usually omitted ; as, " The wall is six feet high ;" 
"We walked twenty miles that day ;" " He helped a worthy man, and is 
not & penny poorer;" "My friend has gone West;" "He is like his 
father;" "They live near the city;" "The book is worth a dollar." 

2. The preposition is omitted as in (212, 4) ; and in dates, there is usually 
an omission of several prepositions; as, "[At] Boston, [on] Monday, [of] 
February the 10th, [in the year] I860." 

3. The word worth is by some called a preposition ; but it can be predicated 
of a noun like an adjective, and may be qualified by an adverb; and what i:> 
more, it expresses an idea of quality rather than a relation between words ; 
as, "The lesson is well icorth learning;" "It is richly worth the money." 
Worth is sometimes a noun, and sometimes a verb ; as, " The icorth of a dol- 
lar ;" " A person of great icorth ;" " Woe tvorth the day." In this last example 
worth is a verb in the imperative, equivalent to be to, and day is the indirect 
object of it. 

4. But and save, in the sense of "except," are generally used a3 prepositions; 
as, "Whence all but him had fled;" yet formerly, and by some writers even 
now, they are regarded as conjunctions ; as, "Neither knoweth any man the 
Father, save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him." 

5. Prepositions are sometimes followed by adjectives, or adverbs used sub- 
stantively ; as, in vain, on high, for this once, till now, from thence, from above. 

6. Than before ichom, has been erroneously supposed by some to be a prepo- 
sition; as, " Than whom none higher sat." Than is no more a preposition 
here than in case of any other proper use of the word. It denotes compari- 
son, and the construction requires that it should be followed by the nomina- 
tive, instead of the objective whom. Though used by some good writers, it 
should be avoided as anomalous. In this case, it should be disposed of by 
saying that it is the objective by the figure enallage (237, 8.) 

The object of the preposition. Nouns denoting time, measure, <&c. Prepo- 
sition omitted. Worth. But and save. Prepositions followed bv adjectives 
or adverbs. Than. 



SYNTAX — WORDS— CONNECTIVES. 225 

225, Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the prepositions and their 
objects : — 

A similar improvement may be made of the memory of our good 
deeds. What ground of hope is there so sure to his spirit, next to the 
mercy of his God, and the intercession of Christ, his Saviour ? It was 
not long before he returned with his man, whom he introduced to me as 
a person of exceeding honesty ; and we went into the yard all together. 

Model. " We live in an age of sifting." — Neander. 

Let the learner analyze this sentence. 

"Age" is a common noun, third, sing., neut., obj., and is the object 
of the preposition "in." Rule XIV. 

" Sifting" is a participial noun, in the objective case, and is used as 
the object of the preposition " of." Rule XIV. 

2. Construct examples in which any of the prepositions (140) shall Join 
adjective or adverbial phrases. 

3. Change the phrases, consisting of a preposition and its object, into equiva- 
lent ADJECTIVES or ADVERBS : 

' The dew of the morning has passed away. The temple of Solomon 
was destroyed by the Chaldean monarch. The messenger was sent in 
haste. The laborer entered upon his task with eagerness. The waves 
dash upon the rocks with fury. 



226. Subordinate Connectives. 
1. Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis- 
similar elements; as, "He that hath pity on the poor, lendeth to 
the Lord." 

2. Subordinate connectives, unlike coordinate, show a relation of depend- 
ence, and are used to join, not clauses of equal rank, but dependent clauses 
to an antecedent term, which they serve to modify, except as below (3). 

3. That, whether, or the various interrogatives, ichen, where, &c, when used 
to introduce a substantive clause employed as the subject of a proposition, do 
not connect the clause to an antecedent term, since the subject can be sub- 
ordinate to no other part of the proposition. These connectives thus used 
serve to convert a principal proposition into a subordinate substantive propo- 
sition, which, like any noun, may be used as the subject. 

4. In many cases, the subordinate connective has a corresponding word in 
the principal clause, called the correlative; as, " Then — when, there — where, 

linate connectives show dependence. That, whether, <ic. Corres- 
ponding connectives. 



226 ENGLISU GRAMMAR. 

if — then, though — yet, so — that, so — as, as — as, the, this, that, these, those — who, 
that, or which. 

5. Though a subordinate conjunction appropriately joins a clause to some 
preceding term, yet than and as sometimes appear to connect words only; as, 
" Less judgment than wit, is more sail than ballast." "The moon, as satellite, 
attends." Though this connection seems to resemble coordinate, the terms 
joined are not of the same rank. As has a peculiar use when thus employed 
to connect an attribute, either predicated or assumed, to the noun to which it 
belongs ; it not only gives emphasis, but expresses the idea of capacity or 
office; as, " He was employed as clerk ;" " The fruit was considered as good ;" 
"He offered himself as printer;" "I do not respect your rules as such;" 
" What is a pronoun as distinguished from a noun ?" 

6. Than, or as, when used to show comparison, instead of connecting 
words only, generally introduces an elliptical clause, which becomes so on 
account of the similarity of its construction to that of the principal clause ; 
as, " He is more nice than wise," that is, " than he is wise." " He is as old 
as his cousin," that is, "as his cousin is old." Sometimes the subsequent 
term is not only elliptical, but abridged ; as, " The patient is so well as to sit 
up," that is, " so well as that he can sit up." " The boy knows better than to 
disobey (182, 7). 

7. As, following an adjective, and sometimes a noun, and without a cor- 
relative, gives an adversative signification to the subordinate clause ; as, 
" Defenceless as we were, we still maintained our ground" = Though we were 
defenceless, <&c. That or as, after a noun, has a similar construction to 
denote concession ; as, "Fool that [or as] I was, I entered the army." 

8. Subordinate connectives are a kind of preposition placed before a sen- 
tence which is to be converted into a noun, adjective, or adverb. Hence, their 
position is almost invariably at the head of the clause. 

Caution. In using a noun or pronoun in on elliptical clause, following 
than or as, avoid both ambiguity and an incorrect construction. Say, My 
brother is older than 7, — not, than me. 

Note. — There is danger of ambiguity only when two different cases occur 
in the preceding clause; as, " Lovest thou me more than these?" that is, 
"more than these love me," or, "more than thou lovest these." 

227. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the connectives : — 
While there is life, there is hope. However friendly he might appear, 
his heart was full of anger. Whether the moon has an atmosphere, has 
not been ascertained. He that plants trees, loves others beside himself. 
What comes from the heart goes to the heart. Time will bring to light 
whatever is hidden. The more we serve God, the better we serve our- 
selves. As far as the eye could see, all was ruin and desolation. "Work 

Than and as. As, denoting capacity or office. Than, or as, showing com- 
parison. As, adversative. That, or as, denoting concession. 



/ 



SYNTAX — WORDS — INFINITIVES. 22" 

as long as you can. The more one has, the more he requires. Revenge 
always costs more than it is worth. That you may be loved, be deserving 
of love. 

Model I. " If we draw within the circle of our contemplation 
the mothers of a civilized nation, what do we see V s — Webster. 

This is a complex interrogative sentence, consisting of a principal 
and a subordinate clause. 

"We" is the subject of the principal clause, and "do see" is the sim- 
ple predicate. "Do see" is limited by the interrogative "what," and 
by the conditional clause "If we draw," &c. 

"If" is a subordinate connective, and joins the subordinate clause, 
which it introduces, to the predicate of the principal clause. These ele- 
ments are dissimilar in rank, in meaning, and in form ; they are con- 
nected by Rule XV Repeat it. 

Model II. " As ye have therefore received Christ Jesus the 
Lord, so walk ye in him/' 

" Therefore," in this complex sentence, is a coordinate conjunction, 
joining the whole sentence as an inference, to a preceding sentence. 

"As" is a subordinate connective, having, as its correlative, the ad- 
verb "so" in the principal clause. It joins the subordinate clause, "As 
ye have therefore received," &c, to "walk." Rule XV. 

2. Construct examples in which any of the relative pronouns shall join 
adjective clauses (143, 17), — others in which that, that not, or any of the 
inter rogatives shall join substantive clauses (143, 16), — and still others in 
which any of the connectives in (143, 18) shall join adverbial clauses. 

3. Correct, by the Caution, the following examples :— 

Who can write better than him ? Whom does he honor more than I ? 
I know James better than him. The lion can devour a sheep as well as 
a wolf. 

228. The Infinitive. 
1. Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of the noun, 
with the signification and limitations of the verb, and, when de- 
pendent, is governed by the word which it limits; as, " To err is 
human;" "They desire to travel in a foreign country;" "He 
wishes to obtain a treatise on the deposition <>f 6a w." 

(a.) After the active voice of bid. dare, let, nerd, make, sec, behold, hear, 
id /eel, and some others, the to of the infinitive is omitted : :is. 
him do it ;" " They let him go." 

Models. The infinitive after bid, dare, hove, &0. 



/V 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The infinitive is properly the simple name of the verb ; and, as such, was 
originally used without a preposition, as subject or object, in a proposition. 
Of these uses, we have the form of one only remaining, namely, that of object 
after the auxiliaries (111, 4 ); as, " Shall icrite," " will read," '• do love," «tc. 
But here the principal verb has lost its original character, — has become an 
auxiliary, a mere index of time and mode, and the infinitive is changed from 
object to attribute. 

3. The infinitive, as now recognized in the language, is the dative case of 
the ancient infinitive ; or the simple infinitive with the preposition to prefixed. 
The two words are so united as to be regarded as an inseparable phrase f^s, 
" To live is Christ, and to die is gain." 

4. The infinitive may be used with or without a subject (184, II., 1, 2) ; as, 
u We wish you to stay." " We wish to stay." 

^W" 5. The infinitive may have a subject in the objective, when its 
subject has not already been expressed in the sentence ; as, " They 
ordered him to leave." 
sy\ ( a -) ^ ne infinitive of the copula may also 'have a predicate objective; 
as, "I knew him to be & preacher." 

(b.) The infinitive, and its subject, may be the subject of a proposi- 
r tion ; the phrase must then be introduced by for ; as, " For you to deceive 
is criminal." " For him to be a scholar is impossible." 

(c.) The infinitive and its subject may be made the object of a transi- 
tive verb, or of the preposition for ; as, " He ordered the horse to be har- 
nessed." " They considered him [to be] a traitor." " They appointed 
him [to be] chairman." " They ordered some water for the boy to drink." 

6. "When the subject has already been expressed, the infinitive 
is used without its subject, and may be 

(a.) The subject of a proposition ; as, " To retaliate is censurable." 

(b.) The attribute of a proposition without the sign to (111, 4) ; as, 
"I do love;" "They may learn." 

(c.) The attribute of a proposition with to prefixed; as, " To obey is 
to enjoy." 

Note. — When the infinitive is thus used, it denotes (1.) An equivalent term ; 
as, " To pray is to supplicate." (2.) What is possible or obligatory; as, " The 
passage is to be found." "Our duty is to be done." (3.) What is settled or 
determined upon ; as, " The work is to commence to-morroic." 

(d.) The object of a transitive verb, a preposition, or it may be used 
to complete the meaning of some intransitive verbs; as, "He-wishes to 
remain." " They are about to go." " She went to weep." 

(e.) An adjective element or noun in apposition, limiting another noun ; 

Tbe name of the verb. The dative case. Used with or without the subject. 
Subject objective. Predicate objective. The subject of a proposition. Object 
of a proposition. The attribute of a proposition. The object of a transitive 
verb. An adjective element. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — INFINITIVES. 229 

as, " Time to come.'' 1 "A desire to go." " A hope to recover." "A wish 
to stay" 

(/.) An adverbial element used to denote purpose, or motive; as, "What 
went ye out to see?" 

Note. — In this use the infinitive is sometimes said, though not properly, to 
be absolute; "To confess the truth, I was in fault" = That I may confess the 
truth, I was in fault." 

(g.) To denote a result, after too, than, so — as; as, "He is too proud 
to beg." " He is wiser than to attempt such an enterprise." " Be so good 
as to hear me." 

7. The preposition for should never be used before the infinitive employed 
to express motive or purpose ; also, the sign to should not be used at the close 
of a sentence ; as, " He went to see," not "for to see." " He spoke, or in- 
tended to speak," not, " intended to." 

8. The infinitive is often understood; as, "They considered him [to be] 
upright." 

229. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives :— 
I have brought a book for you to read. Johnson declared wit to con- 
sist in finding out resemblances. These passages prove that materialists 
will sometimes find Hume to be a very dangerous ally. For him to 
assert and deny the same sentiment on different pages, is proof of the 
instability of his opinions. It was well for him to die at his -post, with 
his armor on. I heard him repeat whole pages of poetry. Few things 
are more destructive]to the best interests of society/han the prevalent 
but mistaken notion that it requires a vast deal of talent to be a suc- 
cessful knave. It is a disgrace to be the author of such a report. To 
take away the benevolent affections from the moral world, would be like 
extinguishing the sun from the natural. I love to roam over the green 
fields. He seems to think the rule inapplicable to his case. They ap- 
pear to rest upon the solid earth. A desire to see his face once more 
induced us to attempt the journey. The work is to be commenced to- 
morrow. To be good is to be happy. They remained to see what was 
to be done. He was too feeble to write a letter. Will you be so good 
as to pass me that book ? 

Model I. " To see the sun is pleasant." 

This is a simple sentence. 

" To see" is the simple, and "to see the sun" is the complex subject. 
"To see" is limited by "the sun,"' a complex objective clement of tho 
first class. Here, though "to see" has the construction of a noun, that 

An adverbial clement denoting purpose, result. Models. 
20 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is, is in the nominative, it lias the limitation of the verb, according to 
Rule XV. 

" To see" is an irregular transitive verb, infinitive mode, present 
tense, and is used as a noun of the third pers., sing., neut., nom., and 
is made the supject of the proposition. Rule XV. 

Model II. " I have heard say of thee, that thou canst under- 
stand a dream to interpret it." — Bible. 

This complex sentence has an infinitive in each clause. 

"Say" is an irregular transitive verb, having "of thee" for an indi- 
rect, and the subordinate clause for a direct object; infinitive mode, 
present tense, and, with its objective subject (men understood), forms 
the object of "have heard." Rule XV. See also (5, c). It is put in 
the infinitive without the sign to, by Rule XV., a. 

" To interpret" is a regular transitive verb, infinitive mode, present 
tense, and is used to limit "canst understand" as its object, by Rule XV. 
By an ancient idiom, its proper object is made the object of the principal 
verb, and is then pleonastically represented by "it." In modern style 
it would be, "understand how to interpret a dream" or "understand a 
dream so as to interpret it." 

2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the uses of the infinitive. 

230. Participles. 

1. Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of acljrr fives 
and nouns, and are limited like verbs ; as, "He, stooping down, 
and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying ; yet went he not in." 
" A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults is a guard against 
committing them." 

2. The participle used as an adjective assumes of its subject 
what the verb asserts; as, "Hyacinths blooming." "Hyacinths 
bloom." 

(a.) When the participle is used wholly as an adjective (184, I., a.), it 
is called & participial adjective, and is placed before the noun; as, "The 
rising sun." "The roaring billows." 

(b.) When the participle is used like an adjective, having the same 
signification and limitations as the verb, the participle, with the words 
which limit it, is then called the participial construction ; as, " Encouraged 
by this magnificent invitation, the inhabitants of the globe considered labor 
as their only friend." 

Participles. Used to assume an act. Used wholly as an adjective. Used 
as an adjective, with the limitations of the verb. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — PARTICIPLES. 231 

(C.) The participle of the copulative verbs may be folio-wed by the pre- 
dicate nominative, (1.) When the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is 
nominative. (2.) When the noun or pronoun to which it logically belongs 
is changed to the possessive; as, "He being an accomplished writer." 
" I have heard of his being an accomplished writer.'" 

(d.) The participle of copulative verbs may be followed by a predicate 
objective when the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is in the objec- 
tive ; as, "We regarded him as being a good writer." "He intrusted 
his son to a gentleman named Edric" 

(e.) The participle, like the adjective, may be used with the copula, 
to form the predicate ; but in this construction it is regarded as a form 
of the verb ; as, " They were riding." " He was deceived." 

(/. ) Participles, such as admitting, speaking, granting, and others, are 
used, as some say, independently ; more properly they belong to some 
noun or pronoun understood ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such 
thing as chance" =We speaking properly, &c. 

3. The participle may be used either wholly as a noun, or as a 
noun having the meaning and limitations of the verb j as, " It is 
pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun." "We should avoid 
giving pain to others." 

(a.) The participle, used wholly as a noun, is preceded by an article 
or adjective, and followed by of; as, "The sighing of the poor." "The 
crying of the needy." In this case the participle cannot be limited, like 
the verb. 

(b.) The participle having the construction of the noun, with the 
meaning and limitations of the verb, may be the subject or predicate nomi- 
native, or the object of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, "Loving our 
neighbor as ourselves is fulfilling the law." "Stealing is taking without 
liberty." "We should avoid breaking a promise." "On approaching 
the house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard." 

(c.) In this construction the participle is called the participial noun, 
and, as such, may be limited by a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; 
as, " What do you think of his writing a letter — his being a writer?" 

4. The participle, like the Latin gerund, may limit the predi- 
cate by expressing a concomitant action, yet may belong, gram- 
matically, to the subject; as, " They remain standing;" "The 
Son of Man- came eating and drinking" 

5. The participlo is often equivalent to the infinitive; as, ''We saw them 
approaching the shore" = approach the shore. 

Participles of copulative verbs. The partioiple with the copula. Partiei- 
plea used independently. The participle used wholly as a noun — having tho 
construction of the noun. Denoting concomitant action. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

231. Exercise. 

Analyze the following examples, and parse the participles : — 
We expect the dancing-master to teach our children " manners," as 
well as the act of cutting awkward capers to music. Why is the ex- 
periment of an extended republic to be rejected? He came near being 
devoured by a panther. The case is w*il worth considering. They 
came upon him without his being apprised of their approach. The 
urchin's becoming so respectable a man surprised every one. The gen- 
tleman's reputation as a scholar was the cause of his being appointed 
professor of rhetoric. They narrowly escaped being taken prisoners. 
Being convinced of his guilt, we resolved to punish him. We descried 
a vessel stripped of its masts. Having declined the proposal, I deter- 
mined on a course suited to my own taste. They have said, Come, and 
let us cut them off from being a nation. There is no doubt of his being 
a great statesman. The young maiden was seen standing on the shore, 
exposed to the merciless winds, and extending her hands towards heaven. 
Whom having not seen, ye love ; in whom, though now ye see him not, 
yet believing, ye rejoice. In avoiding one error, do not fall into another. 
By consulting the best authors, he became learned. ;' Stretching from 
horizon to horizon, losing itself like a limitless wall in the clouds above, 
it came pouring its green and massive waters onward, while the continual 
and rapid crash of falling forests, and crushed cities, and uptorn moun- 
tains, thus prostrated, one after another, under its awful power, and the 
successive shrieks that pierced the heavens, rising even above the roar 
of the on-rushing ocean, as city after city, kingdom after kingdom, dis- 
appeared, produced terror and horror inconceivable, indescribable. 

Model I. "Immured in cypress shades a sorcerer dwells." — 
Milton. 

Let the learner analyze the sentence. It is a simple sentence, — or 
may be regarded as a contracted complex. 

Immured is a passive participle, or past participle with a passive 
meaning [immure, immured, immured), and, like an adjective, belongs to 
"sorcerer," by Rule XVII., or Rule V. 

Model II. " The admiral was too desirous of presenting him- 
self before the sovereigns to protract his stay long at Palos." 
Prescott. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is "the admiral ;" 
the simple predicate is "was desirous," of which "was" is the copula, 
and "desirous" the attribute. The attribute is limited by "of present- 
ing himself before the sovereigns," an indirect objective element, corn- 
Models. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — EXERCISES. 233 

plex, — of which "of presenting" is the basis; "of" is the connective, 
and "presenting" is the object. "Presenting" is limited, first, by the 
objective element "himself," and second, by the complex adverbial ele- 
ment "before the sovereigns." " Desirous" is further limited by " too," 
which intimates the degree or intensity of his desire, and points, as a 
kind of correlative, to the phrase "to protract his stay long at Palos," 
used to express the result of the desire. It expresses a kind of com- 
parison, and is equivalent to another construction ■with so — 05 not, thus, 
— so desirous as not to protract, &c. 

"Presenting'' is a present participle, from the verb present (present, 
presented, presented), used as a noun, and is the object of the preposition 
of, by Rule XIV., and is limited according to Paile XVII. , like the verb 
"present," from which it is derived. 

Construct examples of your own illustrating the various uses of the participle. 

23.2. General Exercises for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. From London Atlas, — taken from Ilillard's First Class Reader. 
Talent is something, but tact is everything. Talent is serious, sober, 

grave, and respectable: tact is all that and more too. It is not a sixth 
sense, but it is the life of all the five. It is the open eye, the quick ear, 
the judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch ; it is the inter- 
preter of all riddles, the surmount er of all difficulties, the remover of all 
obstacles. It is useful in all places, and at all times ; it is useful in 
solitude, for it shows a man his way into the world ; it is useful in 
society, for it shows him his way through the world. Talent is power, 
tact is skill; talent is weight, tact is momentum; talent knows what to 
do, tact knows how to do it; talent makes a man respectable, tact will 
make him respected; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. For all the 
practical purposes of life, tact carries it against talent, ten to one. 
Take them to the theatre, and put them against each other on the stage, 
and talent shall produce you a tragedy that will scarce live long enough 
to be condemned, while tact keeps the house in a roar, night after night, 
with its successful farces. There is no want of dramatic talent, there 
is no want of dramatic tact; but they are seldom together: so we hare 
successful pieces which are not respectable, and respectable pieces which 
are not successful. 

2. Joan of Arc. — Mr*. Hcmans. 

That was a joyous day in Rheims of old, 
When peal on peal of mighty music rolled 
Forth from her thronged cathedral : while around, 
1 A multitude, whose billows made DO sound, 
Chained to a hush of wonder, though elate 
With victory, listened at their temple's gate. 

Models. General Exercises for Analysis and Parsing. 

9ft* 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

* # * * # j> u t w h 05 alone 

And unapproached, beside the altar stone, 

With the white banner, forth like sunshine streaming, 

And the gold helm, through clouds of fragrance gleaming, 

Silent and radiant stood ? — The helm was raised, 

And the fair face revealed that upward gazed, 

Intensely worshipping : — a still, clear face, 

Youthful, but brightly solemn ! — Woman's cheek 

And brow were there, in deep devotion meek, 

Yet glorified by inspiration's trace 

On its pure paleness. That slight form ! 

Was that the leader through the battle storm ? 

Had the soft light in that adoring eye, 

Guided the warrior where the sword flashed high ? 

' 3. From Macaulai/s Miscellanies. 

He saw that Hastings had been guilty of some most unjustifiable acts. 
All that followed was natural and necessary in a mind like Burke's. 
His imagination and his passions, once excited, hurried him beyond the 
bounds of justice and good sense. His reason, powerful as it was, was 
reduced to be the slave of feelings which it should have controlled. His 
indignation, virtuous in its origin, acquired too much of the character 
of personal aversion. He could see no mitigating circumstance, no 
redeeming merit. His temper, which, though generous and affection- 
ate, had always been irritable, had now become almost savage by bodily 
infirmities and mental vexations. Conscious of great powers and great 
virtues, he found himself, in age and poverty, a mark for the hatred of 
a perfidious court and a deluded people. In Parliament his eloquence 
was out of date. A young generation, which knew him not, had filled 
the house. Whenever he rose to speak, his voice was drowned by the 
unseemly interruptions of lads, who were in their cradles when his ora- 
tions on the Stamp Act called forth the applause of the great Earl of 
Chatham. These things had produced on his proud and sensitive spirit 
an effect at which we cannot wonder. He could no longer discuss any 
question with calmness, or make allowances for honest difference of 
opinion. Those who think he was more violent and acrimonious in 
debates about India than on other occasions, are ill-informed respecting 
the last years of his life. In the discussions on the Commercial Treaty 
with the court of Versailles, on the Regency, on the French Revolution, 
he showed even more virulence than in conducting the impeachment. 
Indeed, it may be remarked, that the very persons who represented him 
as a mischievous maniac for condemning in burning words the Rohilla 
war, and the spoliation of the Begums, exalted him into an inspired 
prophet as soon as he began to declaim, with greater vehemence, and 
not with greater reason, against the taking of the Bastile, and the insults 
offered to Marie Antoinette. 

General Exercises for Analysis and Parsing. 






SYNTAX — WORDS — EXERCISES. 235 

4. From Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. 

The quality of mercy is not strained ; 

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven, 

Upon the place beneath ; it is twice blessed : 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes : 

'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown. 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway, 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, 

It is an attribute to God himself; 

And early power doth then show likest God's * 

When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, 

Though justice be thy plea, consider this — 

That in the course of justice, none of us 

Should see salvation : we do pray for mercy ; 

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 

The deeds of mercy. I have spoke thus much, 

To mitigate the justice of thy plea ; 

Which if thou follow, this strict court of Venice 

Must needs give sentence 'gainst the merchant there. 

5. From Byron's Chilcle Harold. 

'The Goth, the Christian, Time, War, Flood and Fire, 
Have dealt upon the seven-hill'd city's pride ; 
She saw her glories star by star expire, 
And up the steep, barbarian monarchs ride, 
Where the car climbed the capitol ; far and wide 
Temple and tower went down, nor left a site : — 
Chaos of ruins ! who shall trace the void, 
O'er the dim fragments cast a lunar light, 
And say, "here was, or is," where all is doubly night? 

Alas ! the lofty city ! and alas ! 

The trebly hundred triumphs ! and the day 

When Brutus made the dagger's edge surpass 

The conqueror's sword in bearing fame away ! 

Alas, for Tully's voice, and Virgil's lay, 

And Livy's pictured page! — but these shall* be 

Her resurrection; all beside — decay. 

Alas, for earth, for never shall we see 

That brightness in her eye, she bore when Rome was free! 

General Exercises for Analysis and Parsing. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. From Campbell's Pleasures of Hope. 

Unfading Hope ! when life's last embers burn, 
When soul to soul, and dust to dust return, 
Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour ! 
Oh! then, thy kingdom comes! Immortal Power! 
What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly 
The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye ! 
Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey 
The morning dream of life's eternal day — 
Then, then, the triumph and the trance begin, 
And all the phoenix spirit burns within ! 

7. From Milton's Paradise Lost. 

They, looking back, all the eastern side beheld 

Of Paradise, so late their happy seat, 

Waved over by that flaming brand ; the gate 

With dreadful faces thronged, and fiery arms. 

Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon ; 

The world was all before them, where to choose 

Their place of rest, and Providence their guide ; 

They, hand in hand, with wandering step and slow, 

Through Eden took their solitary way. 

8. The Perfect Woman. — Wordsworth. 

And now I see with eye serene, 

The very pulse of the machine ; 

A being breathing thoughtful breath* 

A traveller between life and death ; 

The reason firm, the temperate will, 

Endurance, foresight, strength, and skill ; 

A perfect woman, nobly planned, 

To warn, to comfort, and command; 

And yet a spirit still, and bright 

With something of an angel light. 

9. From Pope's Essay on Man. 

Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All but the page prescribed, their present state ; — 
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know, 
Or who could suffer being here below ? 
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 
Pleased to the last he crops the flowery food, 
And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood! 
Oh, blindness to the future, kindly given, 
That each may fill the circle marked by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
A hero perish, or a sparrow fall. 

General H.\crcises for Analysis and Parsing. 






SYNTAX — WORDS — -EXERCISES. 237 

233. Idiomatic and Peculiar Constructions. 

1. Analyze and parse the following examples: — 

The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being a credulous people.* 
That the barons and freeholders derived their authority from kings is 
•wholly a mistake." It c is certainly as easy to be a scholar" 1 as a gamester. 
I am not sure of there ever having been such a man d as Casper Hauser. 9 
The boy has more excuses than can be considered 1 in the allotted hour. 
Six times six are thirty-six. He received sixty-two and a half g cents 
for every three pounds he furnished. The thought of being good h ought 
to arouse us to action. The 1 higher one is, the farther he can see. 
Cursed is he that setteth light j by his father or his mother. The distance 
fell a little short of twenty miles. The wind blows cold. For Jacob* my 
servant's sake, and Israel mine elect, I have even called thee by thy 
name. To be good is to be happy. I rejoice in your success as an 
instructor. 1 He introduced me to the president — an honor which I shall 
not soon forget. They struck one another. The rain and the sunshine 
have each its appropriate work to do. It is man's m to err. I am my 
beloved's, and my beloved is mine. There shall nothing die of all that 
is the children's of Israel. Were you at Beecher's last evening's lecture ? 
In Henry the Eighth's reign England and Wales were completely united. 
This book was purchased at Little and Brown's. Whom 11 have they 
elected chairman ? What" do you call it ? By the world, I would not 
care a pin if the other three were in. For p one to steal is base. To 
confess the truth, I was in fault. Then shalt thou bring forth that man 
or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them q with stones till 
they shall die. He was so much affected as to weep.' 

2. Parse and explain the words in italics : — 

To affect to be a lord in one's closet would be romantic madness. I 
am not aware of his ever having been a teacher. Was this owing to 
there being twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations? Wheat is 
worth a dollar a bushel. The whole affair is of no account whatever. All 
things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to 
them. 

" Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 
Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." 

Whoever (202, 17) may oppose, we shall press the measure vigorously. 
Excuse me this once. 

And all t ho air a solemn stillness holds, 

Save (224, 4) where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 

"200, 1. !>.: b 200, 7: B 198, 5; d 200, b. ; * 226, 6; f 204, 4; ■ 206, 12 j 
" 20B, 19 j ' 206, 10 ; j 206, 13; k 208, 12; * 208, 13; m 210, 7; n 212, n. ; 

22 >, a. ; ■' 222, 3 j * 220, 4, d. ; r 226, 6. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A messenger came rushing from the crowd. The fire turned the cup 
black. The knife was ground sharp. The more I read it the better I 
like it. " Who are you?" was his greeting to this strange intruder. 
" I will not hurt you," was the answer. Let there be light. Everything 
depends upon who compose the committee. We found four persons; 
namely, two men and two women. He is both witty and wise. Parrots 
will talk like persons. The boy is like his father. He gave some apostles ; 
and some prophets ; and some evangelists ; and some pastors and teachers. 
He bids whoever thirst to come. Though he was rejected, he had the 
boldness even to renew his application. They talked the night away. 
They ran the train at the rate of fifty miles per hour. This is — what do 
you call it ? I know not whom to send. 

FIGURES. 

Note. — A figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, construction, and 
application of a word. Hence figures are divided into those of Etymology, 
Syntax, and Rhetoric. 

234. Figures of Etymology. 

1. A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary form 
of a word. 

2. Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, or a 
change, in some of the elements of a word. 

3. Aphcercsis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning 
of a word; as, 'gainst, 'gaii, for against, began. 

4. Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a 
word; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved. 

5. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; 
as, th', tho'j for the, though. 

6. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word ; 
as, a down, en chain, for down, chain. 

7. Epenthesis adds a letter or syllable to the middle of a word ; 
as, preventative, retractation, for preventive, retraction. This 
figure seldom occurs in English. 

8. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; as, 
withoute?i, bounde??, for without, bound. 

9. Synazresis contracts two syllables into one; as, thou'rt, 'tis, 
for thou art, it is. 

Figures. Figures of Etymology. Aphaeresis. Syncope. Apocope. Pros- 
thesis. Epenthesis. Paragoge. Synaeresis. 



SYNTAX — FIGURES. 239 

10. Dicer esis separates two vowels which otherwise might form 
a diphthong; as, coordinate, zoology. 

11. Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a word 
between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us. 

235. Exercise. 

1. Point out the figures in the following examples:— 

Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. 

The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 
Did ye not hear it ? No : 'twas but the wind. 

'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused. 

0, what's the matter? what's the matter? 
What is't that ails young Harry Gill ? 

A heart has throbbed beneath that leathern breast, 
And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. 

He led, I wot, the softest way to death, 

And taught withouten pain and strife to yield the breath. 

2. What figures would you employ to render the following lines harmo- 
nious : — 

It is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 

For we have sworn, by our country's assaulters, 
By the virgins they have dragged from our altars. 

And every tempest howling over his head 
Renders the savage wilderness more wild. 

236. Figures of Syntax. 

1. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary construc- 
tion of a word. 

2. Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a change in some 
of the elements of a sentence. 

3. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause, which 
is necessary to complete the construction ; as, k4 We wore absent 
[during] one day." 

4. It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure a3 

Diasresis. Tmesis. Figures of syntax. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

truly belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which 
are expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical effect, that is, to render 
the sentence more agreeable and forcible. 

5. Ellipsis generally takes place, — 

(a.) In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of some com- 
mon part ; as, — 

" There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think so much 
about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to practise either the 
one or the other." 

(6.) In certain subordinate constructions, especially those which denote 
comparison, for the same reason ; as, — 

" Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude [is]. " " Our minds are as 
different as our faces [are]." 

(c.) In certain idiomatic constructions, — 

(1.) In elements of the first class, — the subject of imperative sentences; as, 
"Go [thou]." "Awake [ye]." The noun after adjectives or after the pos- 
sessive case; as, "The violent [persons] take it by force." "This book is 
mine," i. e., my book. 

(2.) In elements of the second class. The connective maybe omitted. Ex- 
amples. — The to before the indirect object; as, "He gave [to] me a book." 
The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see. To or 
unto after like, near; as, like [to] his father, near [to] the house. During, 
over, for, in, or on, before nouns denoting time, the measure of distance, mag- 
nitude, or excess; as, "They left [on] Monday." "They travelled [through] 
twenty miles." 

The object may be omitted ; as, " The leaves were scattered around [us]." 
In such cases, the preposition is usually called an adverb. 

(3.) In elements of the third class. The connective may be omitted in sub- 
stantive clauses in the objective ; as, "My heart whispers [that] God is nigh." 
In adjective clauses when the relative is in the objective; as, "The paper 
[which] we purchased is damaged." " The house [which] we went to stands 
on a hill." 

The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, if necessary, 
if convenient, when agreeable, while absent," <fec. 

The whole clause between as and if, as and though ; as, " He seemed as [he 
would seem] if [he were] deranged." 

(d.) In exclamatory sentences, in responsives, in inscription.?, and titles; 
as, " [It is] strange !" " Whom did you see ? [I saw] George." " [This 
is] the New Testament." 

6. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as, " I know thee 
who thou arty 

Note. — Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis, and may be said, in general, 
to take place where ellipsis should, but does not, take place. 

Ellipsis in coordinate, subordinate, and idiomatic constructions. Ellipsis 
in exclamatory sentences, &c. Pleonasm. 



SYNTAX — FIGURES. 241 

7. Pleonasm takes place, — 

(a.) When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different words; 
as, "Verily, verily, I say unto you." "All ye inhabitants of the world, 
and dwellers on the earth." 

(6.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then immediately 
represented in the same relation by a pronoun ; as, " Now Harry he had 
long suspected." 

(c.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same relation, 
for the purpose of modifying it; as, "That great God whom you see 
me daily worship; — * — * — that God who created the heavens and 

the earth; * — * — this God who has done all these great things 

— * — * — this great God, the Creator of worlds, of angels, and men, is 
your Father and Friend." 

8. Enallage is a change of one part of speech, for another, or 
some modification of a word for another; as, " They fall succes- 
sive [ly] and successive [ly] rise." " We, Alexander, Emperor 
of Kussia." Here, the plural number is used for the singular. 

9. Uyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "While its 
song rolls the woods along." 



237. Exercise. 

1. Supply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following : — 

Cassius. I am a soldier, I, , 

Older in practice, abler than yourself 
To make conditions. 

Brutus. Go to! you're not, Cassius. 

Cas. I am. 

Bru. I say you are not. 

Vigor from toil, from trouble patience grows. 
One cried, God bless us ! and Amen ! the other. 

2. Tell what figures occur in the following examples : — 

The pilgrim fathers, where are they? Dark burned the candle. 
For Renard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with early morn, he 
mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. Say, burst they bur- 
rowed from her father's wounds these drops. 

Pleonasm. Enallage. Hvperbaton. 
21 Q 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. Figures of Rhetoric. 

1. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary 
application of a word; it is commonly called a trope. 

2. Metaplior gives to an object the appropriate name of 
another object, on account of a resemblance between them; as, 
"Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." 

3. Simile is a formal comparison introduced by like, as, or so; 
as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 

4. An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a kind of 
parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. See 
also the Eightieth Psalm. 

5. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of the 
qualities of living beings; as, " Th« sky saddens with the 
gathered storm." 

6. Metonymy is a change of name ; as, " You will address the 
chair;" i. e., the president. 

7. Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present to the 
senses; as, — 

" See lofty Lebanon his head advance ; 
See nodding forests on the mountains dance." 

8. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whole 
for a part, as a sail for a ship, a roof for a house, the head for 
the person. 

9. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite; as, "He was 
as virtuous as Nero;" i. e., as vile as Nero. 

10. Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in 
contrast; as, " Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great.'" 

11. Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the 
truth; as, "Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because they 
keep not thy law." 

12. Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of 
the mind ; as, " the depth of the riches both of the wisdom 
and the knowledge of God !" 

Figures of Rhetoric. Metaphor. Simile. Allegory. Personification. Me- 
tonymy. "Vision. Synecdoche. Irony. Antithesis. Hyperbole. Exclama- 
tion. 



SYNTAX — FIGURES. 243 

13. Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under 
the form of a question; as, "Hath he said it, and will he not 
doit?" 

14. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address 
some other person or thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in 
victory. Death, where is thy sting ? Grave, where is thy 
victory 1" 

15. Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising 
in importance above the preceding. 

Example. — "What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their 
pleasure it is lawful for them to do ; if whatever it is lawful for them to do, 
they are able to do ; if what they are able to do, they dare to do; if what 
they dare to do, they really execute; and if what they execute is no way 
offensive to you ?" 

239. Exercise. 

Point out the figures in the folloiving : — 

" Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued, 
Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsubdued." 

'Twas then his threshold first received a guest. 

*" For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
And the clans of Culloden are scatter'd in flight." 

He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment is 
vested in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In the sweat 
of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea saw it and fled. Joseph 
is a fruitful bough. Devotion is a delicate and tender plant. A virtuous 
man, slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond obscured by smoke. 
I will be to her a wall of fire. What ailed thee, thou sea, that thou 
flecldest? They are swifter than eagles, they are stronger than lions. 
Canst thou by searching find out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty 
unto perfection ? What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! 
how infinite in faculties ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, 
how like a God! It is only when some moral or political Waterloo or 
Solferino is to be fought, that he puts on the entire panoply of his gor- 
geous rhetoric. 

Explain the figures in 1 Kings xviii. 27: 2 Tot. i. 5-7; also Judges 
ix. 8-17. 

Interrogation. Apostrophe. Climax. 



PUNCTUATION. 
240. Definitions and Distinctions. 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition by 
means of points. 

2. Points are used to separate either entire sentences, or the elements 
of sentences. 

Note. — Let it be understood, that an element may be either a word, a 
phrase, or clause. 

3. A point should not be used, — 

(a.) To separate the parts of a simple element. 

(b.) To separate two united elements when arranged grammatically, and 
closely joined. 

(c.) To separate two united elements simply because, in the utterance, a 
pause should be made. 

Note. — Points are used to mark the sense, ratber than the pauses. It is 
true, that a pause should generally be made Avhere there is a point, but it is 
not equally true that a point should be placed wherever there is a pause. 

4. A point is required, — 

(1.) Always at the end of a full sentence. 
(2.) Always between the members of a loose sentence. 
(3.) Generally between two elements of a sentence, — 
(a.) When several similar elements come together. 
(b.) When an element is loosely connected, 
(c.) When more closely connected, but transposed, 
(d.) When closely connected, but greatly extended in length, 
(e.) When some important word is omitted. 

(/.) When, in any case, the meaning would be obscure or ambiguous with- 
out a point. 

5. As an example of the effect of pointing, see the change of meaning 
in the following words : — 

James Johnson says he has written beautifully. James, Johnson 
says he has written beautifully. "James Johnson," says he, "has 
written beautifully." James Johnson says he has written " beautifully." 

6. The principal punctuation marks are, the comma (,), the semi- 
colon (;), the colon ( : ), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), the period (.), 
the interrogation point (? ), and the exclamation point (! ). 

Punctuation. Entire sentences and elements of sentences. When no points 
are used. Cases where points are required. Effect of pointing. The prin- 
cipal points. 

' (244) 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 2i5 

POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 
241. General Uses of the Comma. 

1. The comma is used principally in separating the elements 
of simple or complex sentences. 

2. As the comma interrupts, in some measure, the union of two ele- 
ments (160), it should never be employed to break the connection when 
one necessarily restricts the meaning of the other. 

3. When an element to be pointed off stands at the beginning or end 
of a sentence, one comma only is used ; but when it stands within the 
sentence, two commas are usually employed; as, "In fact, the people 
are the dupes of demagogues." "The people, in fact, are the dupes 
of demagogues." 

4. The comma is often used to mark the omission of a word, espe- 
cially that of the verb in closely connected clauses ; as, " Semiramis 
built Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Romulus, Rome." 

5. The comma may be used to separate, — 
(«) Coordinate elements. 

(b) A principal from a subordinate element. 

(c) Two principal elements. 

(d) An independent, or a parenthetic element from the rest of the sentence. 

242. Coordinate Elements. 

1. All coordinate elements may be divided into, — 

(a.) Coordinate pairs, or couplets, consisting of two coordinate terms. 

(b.) Coordinate series, consisting of three or more coordinate terms. Thus, 
"Nouns and pronouns" is a couplet; "Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, said, parti- 
ciples" is a coordinate series. In the following example we have a series of 
couplets or compound terms: — " But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or 
ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as 
good a right to liberty as to life." — Beattie. 

2. The pointing of couplets depends, in some measure, upon the 
closeness of the connection. As a general rule, two elements are most 
closely connected when correlatives are used, except when used for con- 
trast or emphasis, less closely connected when a single conjunction is 
employed, and least of all when none is used; as, "He was both vit* 
tuous and ivise;" "He was virtuous and wise;" 1 " He was virtuous, 

3. The terms of a coordinate couplet, as a general rule, should 
not be separated. 

The comma separatee elements. Not to break an intimate relation. One 
comma, toco commas. Omission of a word. Coordinate pain 
series. Rules for couplets. 
2V 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — "Hope and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives;" 
"Virtue or vice predominates in every man and woman." 

4. The terms of a coordinate couplet should be separated, — 
(a.) When the conjunction is omitted, 
(b.) When the terms are identical or equivalent. 
(c) When the terms are contrasted or emphatically distinguished, 
(d.) When either term is limited by an element not applicable to the other, 
or is more extended than the other. 

(e.) When both are limited, and thus considerably extended. 

Examples. — (a.) "The siceetest, wildest land on earth." (b.) "Rise, risp, 
ye wild tempests ;" " Verily, verily, I say unto you ;" " We sailed into an inlet, 
or bay." (c.) "'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." -" The fellow was 
wicked, not weak." (See 244, 4, d.). (d.) "Undue susceptibility, and the 
preponderance of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead us." (e.) In- 
tegrity of understanding, and nicety of discernment, were not allotted in a 
less jjroportion to Dryden than to Pope." 

Note. — Contrasted words, having a common dependence, and not emphati- 
cally distinguished, should not be separated ; as, " He ted an easy but useless 
life." Not so with contrasted phrases ; as, "It was not the result of a hasty, 
but of a deliberate, judgment." 

5. The terms of a coordinate series, whether simple, complex, 
or compound, should be separated by the comma. 

Examples. — "In pronouncing the words lilies, roses, tulips, pinks, jonquils, 
we see the things themselves, and seem to taste their beauty and sweetness ;" 
"The good man is alive to all the sympathies, the sanctions, and the loves of 
social existence;" "Sink or sioim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart to 
this vote." 

" Castles and villas, titles, vassals, land, 
Coaches and curricles, and fours-in-hand." 

6. The final term of a couplet or series is generally not separated from 
the term grammatically dependent upon it, except, — 

(a.) When the conjunction is omitted. 

(b.) When the terms are considerably complex. - 

(c.) When the meaning is made clearer by the point. (See 244, 2, b.). 

Examples. — "Capture, demolish, and bum their cities." (a.) " Capture, 
demolish, burn, their cities." (b.) " Ingratitude for favors, undue regard for 
self, and forgetfulness of others, are marks of a weak and sordid mind." 

Note. — By some, yet erroneously, the last noun of a compound subject, is 
separated from the verb, even when the conjunction is used; as, "Homer, 
Virgil, and Horace, were the most renowned of the ancient poets." 

7. When the terms of a couplet or a series consist of coordinate clauses, 
■whether the propositions themselves are principal or subordinate, a 

Rule for series. Exceptions. Coordinate clauses. 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 247 

comma should separate them, except as in (249, 1, a., b.) ; as, " That their 
poetry is almost uniformly mournful, and that their views of nature 
were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who admit the authenticity 
of Ossian;" "I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat." 



243. Exercise. 

1. Explain by (242, 3) why the following couplets are not separated: — 
Peter and John went up together into the temple at the hour of prayer. 

His bitter and scoffing speech had inflicted keener wounds than his am- 
bition. The powers of their mind seem to be parched up and withered 
by the public gaze. In his letters and conversation he alluded to the 
greatest potentates. He acted neither wisely nor prudently. Either 
you or I must go. 

2. Explain the punctuation of the folloiring by (242, 3, a. b. c, &c). 
Liberal, not lavish, is nature's hand. We often commend, as well as 

censure, imprudently. He can eat, and sleep too. None, but thou, can 
aid us. For Christ sent me not to baptize, but to preach the gospel. 
Public charities, and benevolent associations, for the gratuitous relief 
of every species of distress, are peculiar to Christianity. Powerful 
friends, and first-rate connections, often assist a man's rise, and con- 
tribute to his promotion. Illustrious men have often lived unrewarded, 
and died unlamented. Blow, blow, thou winter wind. Freeze, freeze, 
thou bitter sky. A comma is a point, or mark. Pear, gentle, patient, 
noble Nell was dead. The deaf, the blind, the lame, and the palsied 
were there. Pecrepid age, and vigorous life, and blooming youth, and 
helpless infancy poured forth to gather round her tomb. She plans, 
provides, expatiates, triumphs there. The rich and the poor, the high 
and the low, the learned and the unlearned, have access alike to this 
fountain of peace. The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted 
existence. Children climb the green mound of the rampart, and ivy 
holds together the half-demolished buttress. 

"When riseth Lacedremon's hardihood, 
When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, 
When Athens' children are with arts endued, 
When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men, 
Then thou may'st be restored : — but not till then. 

"Blessing, honor, glory, might, 
Are the Conqueror's native right ; 
Thrones and powers before him fall — 
Lamb of God, and Lord of all!" 

Exercises. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2M. Principal and Subordinate Elements. 

1. A subordinate element generally, whether a word, a phrase, or a 
clause, is not separated from the principal element to which it belongs 
when used restrictively, or when the connection is close; as, "lie that 
hath no rule over his own spirit is like a city that is broken dozen ;" "The 
kings of the earth set themselves ;" " The precise period when (202, 21) 
the discovery was made, is not known." 

2 The adjective element should be pointed off in the following cases, — 

(a.) When an adjective clause, either full, or in its equivalent abridged form, 
is explanatory (202, 13) ; as, " We venerate the name of Washington, icho 
was styled the father of his country;" "Passion is like a whirlwind, pros- 
trating indiscriminately whatever comes in itsicay." In this case, two commas 
(241, 3) are used when the clause comes within the sentence before the predi- 
cate. 

(b.) When the antecedent is a coordinate series (242, 1), even a restrictive 
clause is pointed off, to show that the relative belongs equally to each of its 
terms; as, "The oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, which unite to form the 
atmosjjhere, are mingled in unequal proportions." 

(c.) The noun in apposition may be considered a^ derived from an adjec- 
tive clause containing a predicate noun, and is always to be pointed off when 
it is explanatory (208, 3); as, "Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there in 
the land of Moab ;" " I have killed the king, my husband." 

(d.) A noun in apposition, when used restrictively, or when with a perconal 
pronoun, or another noun, it forms a close combination, is not pointed off; 
as, "King John;" "General Gates;" " Ye winds;" "Gladding brothers;" 
yet, when two closely combined names are inverted, the comma is used ; as, 
" Lincoln, Levi ;" "Harrison, William Henry." 

(e.) A noun in apposition, if modified by phrases or clauses, is usually 
pointed off; as, "Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe." 

(/.) A noun in apposition, or an adjective or participial phrase equivalent 
to a subordinate clause, when employed to introduce a sentence, is pointed off; 
as, "A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope;" "Cradled in the camp, 
Napoleon was the darling of his army." 

3. The objective element, whether a word, phrase, or clause, is closely 
connected to the verb on which it depends, and, unless transposed, 
should not be pointed off; as, "The ox knoweth his oicner;" "They 
long to see that day," "I know not what we can do;" "The impejzding 
storm which threatened us, we all escaped." 

(a.) Though, as a general rule, inverted and loosely connected phrases or 
clauses should not intervene between the object and its governing verb, when 
such cases do occur, commas should separate them from the verb and its object; 
as, "He wishes, in fine, to join his companions ;" " He has bought, as L am 
told, a large tract of uncultivated land." 

Subordinate elements not pointed off. The adjective element, when pointed 
off, hen not. The objective clement, when pointed off, when not. 






SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 249 

(b.) Wh«n an objective clause is a direct quotation (170), and is separated 
by the principal clause, the latter should be pointed off by two commas, — 
otherwise by one ; as, " For all that," said the pendulum, " it is very dark 
here ;" " I say unto all, Watch." 

(c.) The double object of a copulative verb should not be separated when the 
first has the emphasis, or when they are equally emphatic ; as, " They called 
him John;" "They called Miles a carpenter." But when the emphasis fallg 
strongly on the second, it should be pointed off ; as, ''And they called Bar- 
nabas, Jupiter ; and Paul, Mercurius." 

4. The adverbial element is often more loosely connected than either 
the adjective or the objective, and is, consequently, more frequently 
transposed ; yet, when arranged in its natural order, whether it be a 
■word, phrase, or clause, or when closely connected, it should not be 
pointed off; as, "Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth ; and let not thine 
heart be glad when he stumbleth ;" " On the summit of the mountain the air 
is cool and refreshing;" "The child was treated kindly." 

(a.) All loosely connected adverbial expressions, whether words, phrases, or 
clauses, and especially such adverbial and conjunctive words and phrases as 
again, now, then, however, therefore, too, besides, further, once more, in fine, in 
general, on the contrary, without doubt, as it seems to me, and the like, should 
be pointed off (248 and 241, 3) ; as, " On the contrary, the truth lies here." 

(b.) Phrases and clauses, which, in the natural order, would be so closely 
connected as to need no point, are usually pointed off when inverted, and 
alwaj's when the meaning would be doubtful without a point ; as, "But to 
Oeaian, thou lookest in vain ;" " When thou goest, thy steps shall not be strait- 
ened." In the case of inverted phrases, which commence a sentence, the point 
is often omitted; as, " On the third day Burke rose." — JIacaulay. 

(c.) Adverbial clauses, especially when long, and always if loosely con- 
nected, are pointed off, wherever placed. These are generally such as denote 
condition, purpose, concession, cause, time, or place ; as, " Kiss the Son, lest he 
t>e angry, and ye perish." 

(d.) When a subordinate element is connected by means of correlatives, it is 
closely united, and, therefore, not generally pointed off, especially when than or 
as, so — that, or such — that, are used ; but is used more or less by way of con- 
trast in all other cases, and, hence, pointed off; as, "Never take more food 
than is conducive to health ;" " Though thou be sought for, yet shalt thou 
never be found again;" "Though deep, yet clear." 



245. Exercise. 

In the follotving examples, point out the principal and the subordinate 
elements ; and shoxo why the comma is, or is not, used according to 
(244, 1, 2, 3, 4) :— 

lie that covereth his sins shall not prosper: but whoso confessoth and 
forsaketh them shall have mercy. The wicked flee when no man pur- 

The adverbial element, when pointed off, when not. 



250 ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 

sueth. Some have wondered Low it happens that those who have shone 
conspicuously at the bar should have been eclipsed in the senate. He 
had faults unknown to all but his most intimate friends (2, a. b. c). Men 
of strong minds, who think for themselves, should not be discouraged, 
on finding occasionally that some of their best ideas have been antici- 
pated by former writers. There are many good-natured fellows who 
have paid the forfeit of their lives to their love of bantering and raillery. 
The oranges, lemons, and figs, which grow in the northern range of the 
Southern States, are of an inferior quality. No thought can be just, 
of which good sense is not the ground-work. I therefore, the prisoner 
of the Lord, beseech you. Thus saith the Lord, your Redeemer, the 
Holy One of Israel, I am the Lord, your God. General Howe com- 
manded the British forces. Otis, James A. ye laurels ! He called 
the name of that place Bethel. Daniel Webster, the great American 
statesman, died at Marshfield. I at first believed that all these objects 
existed within me. And cried, "Tve caught you then at last." "My 
dear Edward," said he, "this is truly kind." Fortunately for him, a 
little below this place was an island. The beginning of strife is as 
when one letteth out water. If one burden can be borne, so can 
another and another. I am willing, for the general satisfaction, to 
assign my reasons. 

248. The Principal Elements. 
1. Except when the complex subject is very long, no comma 
is required between it and the predicate j as, " He who masters 
his passions conquers his greatest enemy." 

2. It can scarcely be called an exception to this rule, that a point should 
be placed before the predicate, when preceded by a phrase pointed off by 
(244, 4, a.) ; as, "The most delicious fruits, generally speaking, are found in 

. tropical climates." So, again by (242, 6, a.) a comma should be placed before 
the predicate; as, "Patience, meekness, humility, are among the noblest 
Christian virtues." 

3. When the logical subject ends with a verb, or when, without a comma, 
the meaning might be doubtful, a comma should be placed before the predi- 
cate ; as, " Whatever is, is right." 

4. When the attribute is a clause, a comma should be placed between it and 
the copula j as, "The reason is, that the proposition itself is preposterous." 

247. Exercise. 

Show by (246, 1, 2, 3, 4) trhy the comma is used or omitted in the following 
examples : — 

The fate of a brave people was to be decided. Each of the ncgotia- 

No point between the suhject and predicate. Exceptions. 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 251 

tors had what the other wanted. Some, from a diseased fancy, cannot 
confine themselves to a single spot. All these mistaken pursuers of 
good, sooner or later, are the prey of excessive ennui. Industry, 
frugality, economy, are essential to thrift. The want of fuel, of water, 
and of forage, compelled the party to retreat. He who has learned to 
obey, may hope to govern. He that seeketh, findeth. The truth is, that 
the whole of the surface of these beautiful plains is clad throughout 
the season of verdure with every imaginable variety of color. The 
question is, " Where shall we go ?" 



248. Independent and Parenthetic Expressions. 

1. Independent expressions should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by a comma; as, " Yet once more, ye laurels;" 
u Gad, a troop shall overcome him ;" " This said, he formed thee 
Adam, thee, man;" " To con/ess the truth, I was in error;" 
" Generally speaking, little can be done after the first month;" 
" Saying, Lord, Lord, open unto us." 

(a.) When a direct address is expressive of strong feeling, the excla- 
mation point is used ; as, " Desdemona ! Desdemona ! dead!" 

(b.) Interjections in many cases require no pause, but when pointed 
off at all, are separated by the comma, if not emphatic ; otherwise by 
the exclamation point; as, " sing to me of Heaven;" " Lo, here is 
Christ ;" " Oh ! what a situation I am placed in ?" 

(c.) Expressions used parenthetically should be pointed off by the 
comma; as, "Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth 
cannot be put out." 

249. The Semicolon and Colon. 

1. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence 
which are loosely connected ; as, " Make a proper use of your time ; 
for the loss of it can never be regained." 

(a.) Coordinate principal clauses are separated by the semicolon when 
the conjunction is omitted, or when the connection is not close ; as, 
" Life is short ; art is long ;" " A clownish air is but a small defect ; yet 
it is enough to make a man disagreeable." 

[b.) Subordinate parts, when extended, if they form a coordinate scries 
either at the beginning or end of a sentence, are separated by ihe semi- 
colon, when not so closely connected as to require a comma. 

Independent expressions separated by points. — sometimes by a comma, 
sometimes by an exclamation point. Parenthetical expressions. 



ZDZ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Example. — " Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her opera- 
tions; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will 
always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make 
discoveries of which we have not the slightest idea." 

(c.) The semicolon should be placed before as, used to introduce an 
example. See the examples in the preceding paragraphs. 

(d.) The semicolon is used before namely, viz., to wit, when the sub- 
divisions of a preceding term are introduced in a formal way ; otherwise 
the comma or dash is used; as, "Pronouns are divided into three 
classes ; namely, Personal, Relative, and Interrogative." Less formally, 
thus: — "Into three classes — Personal, Relative, and Interrogative." 

(e.) The colon is now but little used except before examples following 
the expressions as folloivs, the following examples, in these words, &c. ; as, 
"Perform the following exercises:" " He used these words: Mr. Presi- 
dent:" &c. It is also used to separate the terms of a proportion; as, 
"A: B:: C: D." 

250. Exercise. 

Insert the comma, the semicolon, and the colon where they are required ki 
the following examples : — 

Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a weak 
mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden but Dryden certainly 
wanted the diligence of Pope. The great tendency and purpose of 
poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary 
walks of ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into 
it more profound and generous emotion. Write on your slates the fol- 
lowing example Mary and John will go. Endeavor to excel much may 
be accomplished by perseverance. He has two coats namely a black 
one and a gray one. The noun is the name of an object as Boston paper. 



251. The Dash and Parenthesis. 

1. The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence is left 
unfinished ; as, " He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes — 
snuff." " But I must first ." 

2. The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis ; as, 
"The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in 
which they had been so wretched." 

3. The dash, or comma and dash, may be placed before the partj 
which resume a whole, or before a construction which is resumed ; as, 
/ 

The colon. The dash. 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 253 

" Ther.e are three persons — the first, the second, and the third.'''' "You 
speak like a boy, — like a boy who thinks the old gnarled oak can be 
twisted as easy as the young sapling." 

4. The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence not 
necessary to the construction, but in some way explanatory of 
the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider (and may the 
consideration sink deep into your hearts) the fatal consequences 
of a wicked life." 

252. Exercise. 

Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the following 
examples : — 

Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are too weak, 
too powerless to express them. The Egyptian style of architecture see 
Dr. Pocock, not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother 
of the Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they not 
wish it, they disdained honorable means. If thou art he, so much 
respected once but, 0, how fallen ! how degraded ! The atmosphere is 
composed of three parts oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gas. 
Greece, Carthage, Rome where are they ? 

POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE. 

253. The Period. 

1. The period is used at the close of a declarative or an impera- 
tive sentence; as, " Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful 
and honorable." 

2. The period is used after abbreviations; as, " The age of MSS. 
is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them ;" " I was 
invited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford." 

3. The period is placed after any word, heading, title, or 
other expression used independently and alone ; as, Exercise. TJie 
Period. II. Couperthwait and Company. 

4. The period is used after numeral letters; as, V. XII. 

254. Exercise. 

Insert the period where it is required in the following examples: — 

Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its 

Parenthesis. Period, at the close of a sentence ; after abbreviations, words, 
hoadings, &c. ; after numeral letters. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

precepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Abhor a 
falsehood I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and 
disgrace, stop where you are The oration was delivered by J L Thomp- 
son, Esq The event occurred B C 1001 To R II Dana Jun Esq the well- 
known author of " Two Years before the Mast," the community are 
greatly indebted But the seasons are not alike in all countries of the 
same region, for the reasons already given See Chap VI \ 2 \ 4 p 330 
See (257, 4) Little and Brown's store A new thing under the sun 
Ripe apples for sale Chapter XX Sec X Part I 

255. Interrogation and Exclamation Points. 
1. An interrogation point is used at the close of an interroga- 
tive, and an exclamation point at the close of an exclamatory 
sentence; as ; " Who comes there?" " How unsearchable are his 



2. When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate clause, — 
(1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is quoted directly ; 

as, " He said, Why do you weep V* 

(2.) The interrogation point is not employed where the clause is quoted 
indirectly; as, "He asked me why I wept." 

3. An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an ex- 
clamatory expression or an interjection; as, "0, Jove Supreme! whom 
men and gods revere !" " ! let soft pity touch the mind!" 

256. Exercises. 

Insert interrogation and exclamation points ichere they are required in the 
folloicing examples : — 

Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread unknown the chaos 
of the tomb Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To what place 
shall I betake myself Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, 
and now thou art in full sight of God. Apostles of liberty what mil- 
lions attest the authenticity of your mission Did she fall like Lucifer, 
never to hope again To purchase heaven has gold the power Who 
shall separate us from the love of Christ What kill thy friend who lent 
thee money, for asking thee for it The secret I implore : out with it 
speak discover utter 

Punctuate correctly in all respects the following examples : — 
What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in 
faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how 

Interrogation points — after subordinate clauses. Exclamation points within 
a sentence. 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 255 

like an angel in apprehension how like a God The air was mild as 
summer all corn was off the ground and the skylarks were singing 
aloud by the way I saw not one at Keswick perhaps because the place 
abounds in birds of prey. Dr H Marsh FK.S &c Bishop of Peterbo- 
rough b 1757 d 1839 As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his facul- 
ies to the task before him and tears sometimes fall on the page he is 
studying so it is in the school of God's providence there are hard lessons 
in it When the poor victims were bayoneted clinging round the knees 
of the soldiers would my friend but I could cannot pursue the strain of 
my interrogation 



257. Other Marks used in Writing. 

1. Brackets ([ ]) are used when a word or phrase is intro- 
duced for explanation or connection ; as, " He [the teacher] thus 
explained the difficulty." 

2. The Apostroplie (') is used either to denote the possessive 
case, or the omission of a letter; as, " John's." "O'er." 

3. The Quotation Maries (" ") are used to include a passage 
taken verbatim from some other author ; as, " He said, ' I relin- 
quish my claim.' " 

4. The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk (f ), the Double Dagger (t), 
and the Parallels ( ||) are used to refer to notes in the margin, or 
at the bottom of the page. Sometimes the Section (§) and the 
Paragraph (^[) are used. Also, small letters, or figures, which 
refer to notes at the foot of the page. 

5. The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that some letter, 

on 

word, or phrase has been omitted ; as, " The pencil lies the table." 

6. The Ilijplien (-) is used to separate the parts of a compound 
word; as, " Book-binder." When placed at the end of a Hue, it 
.shows the word is divided, the remaining part being carried to 

the next line. 

7. The Ellipsis (***) ( ) is used to denote the omission 

of certain letters or words ; as, " C * * * 11." " K g." 

8. The Brace (- — . — •) connects a number of words with one 
common term. 

Brackets. Apostrophe. Quotation mark.-. Asterisk, &C. Caret. 1; 
Ellipsis. Brace. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. The Index (JG®*) points to some remarkable passage. 

10. The Section (§) also denotes the divisions of a treatise. 

11. A Paragraph (^f ) also denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

12. The vowel marks are the Diaeresis (••)> placed over the 
second of two vowels which are separated; the Long sound (-), 
placed over a long vowel ; the Breve, or Short sound (^), placed 
over a short vowel; and accents, Grave ( v ) ; Acute ('), and Cir- 
cumflex (a). 

Note. — The best practical exercises on all these marks and points, will be 
given by the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sentences re- 
quiring the use of them j or, let the teacher read from some book, any passage 
which demands their use, and let the class be required to insert them in their 
proper places. 

258. Exercise. 

Punctuate properly the following examples, and insert the capitals: — 
what was csesar that stood upon the bank of the rubicon a traitor 
bringing war and pestilence into the heart of that country no wonder 
that he paused no wonder if his imagination wrought upon by his con- 
science he had beheld blood instead of water and heard groans instead 
of murmurs no wonder if some gorgon horror had turned him into stone 
upon the spot but no he cried the die is cast he plunged he crossed and 
rome was free no more Jcnowles. 

what sort of eyes can you have got said he 
why very good ones friend as you niay see 
yes i perceive the clearness of the ball 
pray let me ask you can you read at all 

Index. Section. Paragraph. Diaresis, &c. Exercise. 



PROSODY. 

259. Definition. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

260. Verse. 

1. A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented syllables, 
constituting a line of poetry. 

2. A couplet is the combination of two lines or verses. A 
triplet consists of three lines. 

3. A stanza is the combination of several lines forming a divi- 
sion of a poem or song. 

4. Verse is sometimes erroneously applied to a stanza. 

5. Verse is of two kinds — rhyme and Hank verse. 

6. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse 
to that of another. 

7. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

281. Feet. 

1. A foot is a portion of verse containing two or more syllables, 
combined according to accent. 

2. The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in uttering it. All 
syllables are either long or short. 

3. In English, an accented syllable is considered long ; and an unac- 
cented, short. 

4. A straight line (-) over a syllable shoivs that it is accented, and a 
curved line ( — ) that it is unaccented. 

5. The principal feet in English are the iambus, the trochee, 
• the anajya'st, and the dactyl. 

G. The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable; as, 
(t %nvite" "devote," " bSnign." 

Prosody. Verse. Couplet. Stansa. Rhyme and blank Terse. 
Quantity. Iambus. 

* 22* R 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The trochee consists of a long and a short syllable; as, 
" grateful" "grievous." 

8. The anapaest consists of two short syllables and one long 
one; as, li incomplete " u condescend" 

9. The lacti/l consists of one long syllable and two short ones; 
as, il positive" u loneliness." 

10. Besides the kinds of feet mentioned above, four others sometimes 
occur, — the pyrrhic and the spondee, the amphibrach, and the tribrach. 
The pi/rrhic consists of two short, and the spondee of two long syllables ; 
as, in the {vale) ;" "vain man." The amphibrach has three syllables, of 
which the first and third are short, the second is long; as, " content- 
ment." The tribrach consists of three short syllables ; as, " (innume- 
rable. " 

11. These last four feet are seldom found in English poetry. They 
sometimes mingle with other feet, and give thereby a pleasing variety ; as, 

" From peak | to peak | the rat- | tlmg crags | among. 

? the | live thun- | der! not | from one | lone cloud." 



Here, in the second line, the first foot is a trochee, and the second is a 
spondee. They occur in a single verse of an Iambic poem. 

282. Exercises. 

1. What foot does each of the following words contain: — 

Absent, control, viewing, darkness, complete, correct, glory, repro- 
duce, indite, reconstruct, compose, gloriously, positive, acquiesce, re- 
unite, beautiful, sweetest, comforter, overcome, churlishness, nourishing, 
intercede, foolishness. 

2. Prefix one or more ivords to the folloicing, so as to make a phrase co?i- 
sisling of two iambic feet, thus: — 

A new | supply. defeat. disgrace. accord. pro- 
claims. commends. divine. entreats. believes. 



283. Classification of Verse. 

1. A line consisting of one foot is called Tnonometerj of two, 
dimeter; of three, trimeter; of four, tetrameter ; of five, penta- 
meter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, lieptameter. 

2. When a syllable is wanting, the line is said to be catalcclic; when 

Trochee. Anapaest. Dactyl. Other kinds of feet. Classes of verse. 



PROSODY — SCANNING. 259 

the measure is full, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant 
syllable, it is called hypermeier. 

264. Scanning. 
1. Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which 
compose it. 

265. Iambic Verse. 

1. Iambic of one foot — monometer : — 

They go 
To sow. 

2. Iambic of two feet — dimeter:-— 

To me [ the rose 
No longer glows. 

3. Iambic of three feet — trimeter: — 

No roy- | al pomp | adorns 
This King of righteousness. 

4. Iambic of four feet — tetrameter : — 

And cold- | er still | the winds | did blow, 
And darker hours of night came on. 

o. Iambic of five feet — pentameter : — 

On rift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | on's late | abodes, 
The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 

6. Iambic of six feet — hexameter : — 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is passed ; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 

7. Iambic of seven feet — heptameter : — 

The lof- | ty hill, | the hum- | ble lawn, | with count- | less 

beau- | ties shine ; 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine. 

8. Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; that of six foot 
is called Alexandrine. 

9. Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two lino- — 
the first containing four feet, the second three. This is called 
common metre ; as, 

Scanning. Iambic Verse. Heroic. Alexandrine. 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 

With countless beauties shine ; 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, 

Proclaim thy power divine. 

10. In long metre, each line has four iambic feet; in short 
metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three iambic 
feet, the third four. 

11. Each species of iambic verse may have one additional 
short syllable, thus : — 

(a.) Relent- j ing. 

(b.) Upon | a moun- | tain. 

(c.) When on | her Ma- | ker's bo- | som. 

(d.) First this | large par- | eel brings | you ti- | dings. 

(e.) Each sub- ["stance of | a grief | hath twen- | ty shad- | ows. 

(/.) Thine eye | Jove's light- j ning seems, | thy voice | his dread- | 

fill thiin- | der. 
{g.) How gay- | If o- | ver fell | and fen | yon sports- | man light | is 

dash- | ing ! 

266. Trochaic Verse. 

1. Trochaic of one foot : — 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

2. Trochaic of two feet : — 

Fancy | viewing, 
Joys ensuing. 

8. Trochaic of three feet : — 

Go where | glory | waits thee, 
But when fame elates thee. 

4. Trochaic of four feet : — 

'Twiis the | hour when | rites un | holy, 
Called each j Paynim | voice to | prayer. 

5. Trochaic of five feet : — 

All that | walk on J foot or | ride in | chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. Trochaic of six feet : — 

On a | mountain | stretched, be- | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

Long Metre. Trochaic verse. 



PROSODY — TROCHAIC VERSE — ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 2G1 

7. In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd sylla- 
bles; in iambic, on the even. 

8. Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; as, 

(a.) Where we | may 
Think and pray. 

(6.) And at | morn they J play, 
In the foaming spray. 

(c.) Heaving | upward | to the [ light. 
[d. ) Where- | fore | thus my | weary | spirit | woo ? 
(e.) Eeared 'mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com- | peers. 
(/.) Casting J down their | golden [ crowns a- | round the | glassy }. 
sea. 

267. Anapsstic Verse. 

1. Anapcesiic of one foot: — 

But in vain 
They complain. 

2. Anapcestic of two feet : — 

Where the sun | loves to pause 
With so fond a delay. 

3. Anapcestic of three feet: — 

From the cen- | tre, all round | to the sea, 
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 

4. Anapcestic of four feet : — 

0, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the west, 
Through all | the wide bor- | der his steed | was the best. 

5. In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syllable. 
The first foot of an anaprestic verse may be an iambus; as, 

And mor- j tals the sweets | of forget- | fulness prove. 

268. Dactylic Verse. 

1, Dactylic of one foot: — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2. Dacti/lic of two feet: — 

Father all | glorious, 
O'er all victorious. 

Anaplastic verse. Dactylic verse. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Dactylic of three feet: — 

Wearing a- | "way in his | youthfulness, 
Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 

4. Dactylic of four feet : — 

Shame and dis | honor sit | by his grave | ever, 
Blessings shall | hallow it, | never oh, | never ! 

5. Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. Dactylic verse 
is very irregular; the final short syllables are often omitted, as in 
the last example. The different kinds of feet are often mingled 
in the same verse, thug : — 

I come, | I come ; | ye have called | me long; 

I come | o'er the muun- | tains with light | and song. 

269. Poetic Pauses. 

1. Besides the pauses required by the sense or grammatical 
construction of verse, two pauses — the final .and casural — may 
also occur. 

2. The final pause occurs at the end of each line, whether 
the sense requires it or not. 

3. The ccesural pause occurs within the line itself, and is only 
a suspension of the voice ; as, 

"Ask for what end — the heavenly bodies shine." 

270. Exercise. 

1. Scan the following, and tell what kind of verse it is: — 
Art is long, and time is fleeting, 

And our hearts, though Ptout and brave, 
Still like muffled drums are beating, 

Funeral marches to the grave. — Longfellow. 

From Greenland's icy mountains, 

From India's coral strand, 
Where Afric's sunny fountains 

Pioll down their golden sand ; 
From many an ancient river, 

From many a palmy plain, 
They call us to deliver 

Their land from errors' chain. — Ileber. 

Poetic pauses. Final. Cacsural. 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 208 

Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven first-born, 
Or of the Eternal co-eternal "beam ! 
May I express thee unblamed? since God is light, 
And never but in unapproached light 
Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee, 
Bright effluence of bright essence increate ! 
Or hear'st thou rather, pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain who shall tell ? — Milton. 

Ye nymphs of Solyma ! begin the song ; 

To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong. 

The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades, 

The dreams of Pindus and th' Aonian maids, 

Delight no more ! — thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire ! — Pope, 

Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 
Confusion on thy banners wait ! 
Though fanned by conquest's crimson wing, 
They mock the air with idle state. — Gray. 

Earth may hide — waves engulf — fire consume us, 

But they shall not to slavery doom us ; 

If they rule, it shall be o'er our ashes and graves, 

But we've smote them already with fire on the waves ; 

And new triumphs on land are before us, 

To the charge ! — Heaven's banner is o'er us. — Campbell. 

Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 

Honored and blest be the ever-green pine ! 

Long may the tree in his banner that glances, 

Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line ! 

Heaven send it happy dew, 

Earth lend it sap anew, 
Gayly to bourgeon, and broadly to grow; 

While every highland glen 

Sends our shout back again, 
Rbderigh Vich Alpine Dim, ho ! ieroe ! — Scott. 

The night winds come and go, mother, upon t lie meadow grass, 
And the happy stars above them, seem to brighten as they pass; 

There will not be a drop of rain the whole of the livelong day. 

And I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' the May. — 

Tcnin/soii. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then read from the treasured volume 

The poem of thy choice, 
And lend to the rhyme of the poet 

The beauty of thy voice. 

And the night shall be filled -with music, 

And the cares, that infest the day, 
Shall fold their tents, liEe the Arabs, 

And as silently steal away. — Longfellow. 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 

Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime — 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
Now melt into softness, now madden to crime ? — 

'Tis the land of the East ! — 'tis the clime of the Sun ! — 

Can he smile on such deeds as his children have done ? — Byron. 



THE END. 



L-tt 



